titanium metal alloy, used in industry, super resistant metal. Photo: iStock
Overview
In the last few years, there has been a lot of buzz about the metal known as titanium. The reason is that it has quite a few properties that make it useful in everyday life.
It is strong, lightweight, and corrosion-resistant among other things. It is most popular for being used to create aircraft parts and car engine components; however, there is so much more to this metal than meets the eye.
People have used titanium for thousands of years. Only recently we have begun to understand exactly how useful this mineral can be. It was found to be extremely useful for military stealth functions, starting with the famous SR-71 reconnaissance aircraft, due to the metal’s strength and high-temperature resilience (as we will discuss below) and the fact that it is lightweight (e.g. in this case, functioning as a very strong material but light), it was perfect for this spy plane.
Let’s take a look at some interesting facts about titanium.
Properties Stronger than Steel
You might have heard that titanium is as strong as steel. While this is not entirely true, it is close enough to be significant. To begin with, strength is not a single chemical property of a material. But for simplicity, let’s treat it as one.
The tensile strength (measurement of a material’s elastic stress when a load is placed on it – how much it can withstand before starting to stretch or pull out before breaking apart) of steel is around 100 gigapascals (GPa) – the unit of measurement of tensile strength. (One pascal is equal to 1 newton of force per square meter).
The tensile strength of titanium is about 60 GPa. Therefore, steel is stronger than titanium. However, the thing to note here is that titanium’s strength is applied only at a very specific point. Let’s say that you have a piece of metal that has a high tensile strength across its entire surface. This does not make it stronger than a piece of metal with a lower tensile strength applied at a specific point.
Titanium (Ti) has 22 electrons and 22 protons. Photo: iStock
Chemical Properties of Titanium
Titanium has a lot of unique properties that make it special. It has a very high melting point (more than 3,000 degrees Fahrenheit). Because titanium resists oxidation at high temperatures, it is often used in high-temperature applications.
Oxidation is the loss of electrons, resulting in the titanium atoms becoming vulnerable to combining with other atoms; subsequently changing their properties and compromising the material.
A perfect example of using titanium for its resistance to oxidization at high temperatures is that it makes an excellent material for the SR-71 since this plane could fly at Mach 2.5, which is close to 2,000 miles per hour. This metal is also corrosion-resistant. This means that titanium is very useful when exposed to water or air.
Titanium has an atomic number of 22 and an atomic weight of 47.867, which means it has 22 protons and approximately 48 protons and neutrons, respectively.
Everyday Uses of Titanium
Titanium is being used in many different industries, and there are several everyday uses of titanium that you may not be aware of. This is because titanium is lightweight, strong, and corrosion-resistant, making it the perfect material for sports equipment.
Sports equipment – If you are a sports fan, you may have seen athletes wearing titanium-containing sports accessories.
Medical equipment – If you ever get an MRI scan, you may be inside a machine that is made of titanium. This is because titanium is very safe to use around living tissue and can be sterilized easily.
Marine parts – If you own a boat, you may be surprised to learn that the propellers and rudders are often made of titanium. This is because it is strong, lightweight, corrosion-resistant, and does not affect water flow.
Water and air purification – You may have seen pictures of large towers in cities. These towers are used for water purification and are often made of titanium.
Construction – Buildings, bridges, and other infrastructure are often constructed using titanium. This is because it is highly corrosion-resistant and very strong.
Food packaging – If you have ever eaten food that was in a pouch, there is a good chance that the pouch was made of titanium.
How is Titanium Produced?
Titanium is made through a process known as the Kroll process. – First, titanium ore is mined and then sent to a smelter where it is heated to extremely high temperatures.
The resulting molten metal is then sent through a chemical reduction process which removes oxygen and other impurities. The molten metal is then cast into ingots and then rolled into long bars. These bars are then drawn through a press that elongates them and makes them thinner. Finally, the bars are shaped into their final forms and then sent to be coated or processed further.
Problems with Manufacturing and Existing Processes
As you have read, titanium is a very versatile material that can be used in a wide variety of industries. However, there are some issues with the current methods of manufacturing this mineral that needs to be addressed.
High costs – Currently, the process of producing titanium is very energy-intensive and expensive. The cost of the metal itself is also quite high, making it costly to produce certain products.
Contamination – The process of manufacturing titanium is quite complex, and there is a risk of contamination in certain areas of the process.
High purity requirements – Another issue with titanium is that it has very high purity requirements. This means that the resulting metal can be very impure even after the purification process.
Difficult to produce large quantities of titanium in the quantities needed for the industries that use it.
Concluding Words
Titanium is a very versatile metal that can be used in a wide variety of industries. However, due to its high costs and difficult manufacturing process, it is often difficult to produce large quantities of titanium. With that said, titanium is used for very specific functions. This article has explored the many uses of titanium and the process behind its manufacture.
In the 19th century, with the advent of structural steel, engineers began using cantilevers to construct taller buildings. This type of architecture is primarily used when there isn’t enough space on one side of a structure for its foundation. Engineers have to build the foundation out from one side and then use beams that extend from it to support the weight.
This construction style is eye-catching and certainly more daring than other methods of building. It also requires serious engineering skills, as well as a detailed understanding of how much weight the beams can bear without giving way. Indeed, the correct structural engineering is imperative as just a small miscalculation in the production of steel and concrete can result in catastrophe.
If you live in a big city, you might have noticed that more buildings are being built with these overhangs. This is especially true for cities where space is at a premium, such as New York City. In this article, we are going to take office building construction to a whole new level – the use of cantilevers!
The Citicorp Center, New York City
Citicorp Tower, NYC. Photo: Wikimedia CC
If there was ever a building that emphasized cantilever design it would be the Citicorp Center in midtown Manhattan. Completed in 1977, the 59-story, 915-foot-high skyscraper sits on three stilts with an internal core at the center.
The building is structurally sound now; however, thanks to an observant doctoral student at Princeton University, a discrepancy was discovered when wind forces hit particular angles of the building.
In 1978, Diane Hartley, who was writing a structural engineering thesis, found that the engineer’s calculations did not match hers, which was disturbing since it indicated a possibly dangerous situation.
Should a strong windhappen to hit the building’s corners, the possibility of the building toppling over had a chance of collapse. It was a one-in-16 chance, but the danger still existed.
Hartly proceeded to notify William LeMessurier, who was the chief structural engineer. He checked her math and realized she was correct.
Quietly, LeMessurier proceeded to correct the issue. In coordination with the NYPD, an evacuation plan was enacted, which covered a ten-block radius. An evacuation almost materialized as a hurricane was forecast to be heading towards NYC. Hurricane Ella was on its way but moved away from the city at the eleventh hour.
Interestingly enough, word did not get out about this until 1995 when it was published in the New Yorker Magazine.
In addition to the skyscraper’s unusual cantilevered design, the developers used their ingenuity to build a large solar panel at the top of the structure; hence, the slanted roof at the top points south. But the idea never materialized, the slanted roof remains as an esthetic addition to the building.
The Rotterdam Tower
Photo: Wikipedia-CC
This intriguing building is located in the Netherlands and is part of the Erasmus Bridge Complex. It is a mixed-use building that houses offices, a hotel, and apartments. The building has a cantilever design, which is why the residents can enjoy a gorgeous view of the river
The architects designed the building so that it extends out over the river and almost touches the bridge. They also designed it so that it is taller on one side. The weight of this building is distributed between its central core and its cantilever, which is why it can be so tall without the ground beneath it being affected.
Statoil Regional and International Offices
Statoil is an energy producer in Norway and the 57th largest company in the world. Norwegian architects A-Lab designed a 117,000-square-meter commercial building complex that fits into the picturesque shoreline of Fornebu in perfect harmony.
Additionally, this architectural expression injects new energy into the nearby park and commercial area and was a key challenge in their design. Of course, it is the overhangs that make the building stand out. They stretch up to 100 feet in many directions.
Marina Bay Sands Hotel
The Marina Bay Sands Hotel is considered one of the most impressive hotels in the world. It is a massive construction project that began in 2003 and was completed in 2011. The project was a collaboration between the Las Vegas Sands Corporation and the Singapore government and was built on the site of a former shipyard. The hotel has three 55-story towers. but in addition to these buildings, it has a sky park that is cantilevered over all three towers.
Designed by Israeli architect Moshe Safdie, the hotel has 2,500 rooms and a lobby that crosses the entire three buildings just like the sky park above.
One of the most interesting aspects of the construction of the hotel was that developers used an unusual design that allowed them to build upwards while keeping the foundations stable.
This was necessary because Singapore is located on a floodplain, and it is impossible to build foundations below ground level, so the engineers designed the foundation so that the bottom of the hotel would be constructed on a metal mesh, which would be anchored to the ground. The mesh would keep the foundation stable while allowing sand and water to flow freely through it. The foundation is built in modular sections, which can be raised and lowered as necessary. The builders also used a system of shuttles to transport construction materials to the upper floors of the hotel, as well as the rooftop.
Lessons Learned from MBS’s Construction
As we have seen, the construction of the Marina Bay Sands Hotel was a challenge. It is rare for the ground to shift so dramatically in an area where there is no flooding, and it is even more unusual for builders to build on top of a metal foundation. Although this construction project was unique, it still provided some important lessons for other builders.
The first is that challenges are an inevitable part of construction, and there are always several factors that have to be taken into account. The second is that challenges should not be seen as a reason to abandon the project. When building on the water, the builders of the Marina Bay Sands had to be flexible, and ready to make adjustments at any time. If they had been too rigid, they may not have been able to proceed with the project at all.
With space so much at a premium in this city, the only way to build is up, and even then, it might not be enough to encompass the amount of office space that the developers envisioned for the Vanderbilt Tower.
Located across from Grand Central Terminal, it is the fourth tallest building in NYC, rising 1,401 feet above the ground. On the south and west sides, it is cantilevered over Vanderbilt Ave. and 42nd Street respectively, and this overhang starts at only approximately 50 feet up and then supports the rest of the superstructure. There is an observatory at the top, which is the 5th observatory in Manhattan.
Other skyscrapers with noticeable cantilevered construction in New York include Central Park Tower and the Citicorp Headquarters, displayed above.
Also known as 270 Park Ave., this 1,388-foot-tall, 70-story, 2.5 million-square-foot super tower is located between Park and Madison Avenues, and 47th and 48th Streets.
This massive building will be supported, in part by steel cantilever columns that protrude diagonally out on the eastern and western sides of the building.
Interestingly, the building is replacing the former Union Carbide 52-story tower (later bought by Chase) that was previously there. The building was completely demolished, which made it the largest intentionally demolished building in the world.
The new Chase headquarters will have zero carbon emissions and will be 100% powered by New York hydropower in upstate NY, which produces electricity completely from flowing water.
No doubt, this will be one of New York’s most advanced skyscrapers.
Frank Gehry’s Chiat/Day Building
Binoculars Building, Los Angeles, CA. Photo: Wikimedia CC
This building is a former office building in Los Angeles, California that was converted into a mixed-use building. It is now home to a variety of businesses, as well as the famous advertising agency Chiat/Day.
Designed by notable architect Frank Gehry, this building with a cantilever on one side so that it could house all of the businesses. They designed the cantilever so that it wouldn’t cause damage to the building’s foundations.
The building’s cantilever also allowed designers to create an interesting façade. They were able to extend the second floor out so that it creates a terrace, which is accessible from the sidewalk.
Summing Up
The cantilever is an interesting architectural feature that many people likely do not think about as they walk under these overhangs, but it is a complex engineering solution that isn’t suitable for every project; however, in these examples, it works brilliantly.
While they may be pretty to look at, they also serve a critical function, which makes them a necessity. While the specific structural design of each cantilever will vary depending on the building type, design, and geographic location, the overall concept is the same.
NGC 3324 in the Carina Nebula Star-forming region from James Webb. Photo: NASA Public Domain
A Giant Feat for Mankind
By far, the most extraordinary images from outer space that have ever been received have come from the James Webb telescope. As the successor to the famous Hubble Space Telescope, the James Webb is the most powerful space observatory ever built, with far more potential than anything that has come before it.
Launched on Christmas Day, 2021 on the Ariane 5 rocket, this giant observatory, the size of a tennis court, is currently in L2 Orbit, located 1.5 million miles from Earth, sending extraordinary images of objects from as back into time as when the big bang started -13.7 years ago.
To understand why this matters so much to humanity, we first have to understand what the JWST is not. It is not a souped-up version of the Hubble; nor is it an alternative to Hubble — something different but still essentially the same.
Instead, the JWST represents a completely new paradigm in design and function for a space-based optical telescope. In other words: It’s like nothing we’ve ever seen before.
How Does the JWST Differ from Hubble?
JWST in space near Earth. James Webb telescope far galaxies and planets explore. Photo: iStock
The two telescopes, while both space-based observatories are very different in two significant categories.
Mirror size
Light spectrum
Size Does Matter!
There is a major difference between the JWST mirrors and the Hubble’s mirrors in size. As discussed further in the article, the bigger the mirror, the further back into space we can see.
James Webb Telescope mirrors compared to Hubble’s mirrors. Photo: Nasa.gov
As a result, this amazing observatory is also about 10 times more powerful than Hubble, with a much wider field of view — and, therefore, able to observe more objects.
Electromatic (Light) Spectrum
The JWST is designed to observe light in infrared wavelengths. Being able to see objects not usually visible to humans, whereas Hubble primarily observes visible and ultraviolet light.
This is significant because only a very small percentage of the universe’s atoms emit visible light, while almost all atoms emit infrared light. As such, the JWST — in conjunction with other telescopes that are observed in other wavelengths allows us to view a much bigger chunk of the universe than Hubble ever could.
In addition to infrared, the JWST also has a small segment that observes a type of ultraviolet light that is inaccessible to Hubble.
Why is the JWST Important?
The JWST is a completely different kind of telescope that exploits a different approach to astronomy and will, therefore, produce many different results.
With its ability to detect light from the first stars that ever formed in the universe and the first galaxies that ever formed after the Big Bang, it will, for the first time, give us a comprehensive picture of the evolution of the cosmos.
The JWST will also allow us to look for the earliest signs of life beyond our planet and, as such, represents a major step on humanity’s path toward enlightenment, as well as a greater understanding of who, what, and where we are.
The Telescope Assembly
The observatory is primarily composed of three components:
This is where the mirrors are contained. The mirrors are the most significant part of the telescope. Simply put, the larger the mirror, the further back in space we can see and with greater detail, More specifically, the size of the mirror is directly proportional to the sensitivity (detail) that the telescope can display. The larger it is, the more detail it will show.
This amazing high-tech instrument consists of hexagonal-shaped mirror segments that measure over 4.2 feet across and weighs approximately 88 pounds. It has 18 primary segments that work in symmetry together to produce one large 21.3-foot mirror.
The mirrors are made of ultra-lightweight beryllium, which was chosen due to their thermal and mechanical properties at cryogenic (low) temperatures, as well as beryllium’s weight which made it a lot easier to lift it into space.
James Webb mirror assembly. Each segment has a thin gold coating chosen for its ability to reflect infrared light. The largest feature is the five-layer 80-foot long and 30-foot-wide sun shield that dissipates heat from the sun more than a million times. Photo: NASA
“The James Webb Space Telescope will be the premier astronomical observatory of the next decade,” said John Grunsfeld, astronaut and associate administrator of the Science Mission Directorate at NASA Headquarters in Washington. “This first-mirror installation milestone symbolizes all the new and specialized technology that was developed to enable the observatory to study the first stars and galaxies, examine the formation of stellar systems and planetary formation, provide answers to the evolution of our solar system, and make the next big steps in the search for life beyond Earth on exoplanets.”
Amazingly, the mirrors will fold to fit into the spacecraft and then unfold when ejected into outer space.
“After a tremendous amount of work by an incredibly dedicated team across the country, it is very exciting to start the primary mirror segment installation process,” said Lee Feinberg, James Webb Space Telescope optical telescope element manager at Goddard. “This starts the final assembly phase of the telescope.”
Bill Ochs, James Webb Space Telescope project manager said “There have many significant achievements for Webb over the past year, but the installation of the first flight mirror is special. This installation not only represents another step towards the magnificent discoveries to come from Webb but also the culmination of many years of effort by an outstanding dedicated team of engineers and scientists.”
The Spacecraft Element
Something must power this system and the spacecraft element is what does it. It supplies the rocket thrusters, propulsion system, communications, and all the electrical power needed to make this run as a well-oiled machine.
Where are We Now?
Deepest Infrared Image of the Universe Ever Taken. Photo: NASA Public Domain
We will leave you with this. Galaxy cluster SMACS 0723, which contains thousands of galaxies is 4.6 billion light years away.
That means that we are looking at it the way it looked 4.6 billion years ago. Scientists have a lot of work ahead of them and who knows what they’ll find?
Cape Canaveral, Florida – March 2, 2010: The Rocket Garden at the Kennedy Space Center. Eight milestone launch vehicles from KSC’s history are displayed. Photo: iStock
With the advent of NASA’s new planned trips to the moon and Mars and Elon Musk jumping in with his successful Space-X program, we’d thought it would be a good time to look back at how we got to this point and what better way to begin but with the Space Shuttle program. (Yes, we can go back further to the Saturn V and the manned moon trips but we will in a separate article because such a major achievement deserves its own space (put intended ????)
Space Shuttle Overview
Space Shuttle Columbia from its 16th flight landing at Kennedy Space Center Photo: Wikimedia Public Domain
The space shuttle Columbia was the first of the shuttle crafts to be launched and ultimately became a feat of engineering excellence. It was the most complex machine ever built to bring humans to and from space, and it has successfully expanded the era of space exploration. It leads to two decades of an unsurpassed legacy of achievement.
The difference between the shuttle program and previous rockets that went into space was that these aircraft were designed to be used over and over again. Columbia completed 28 missions over 22 years.
In the Beginning
The Columbia Space Shuttle was named after a sailing vessel that operated out of Boston in 1792 and explored the mouth of the Columbia River. One 975 in Palmdale, California, was delivered to the Kennedy Space Center in 1979.
There were many problems with this orbiter initially and this ultimately resulted in a delay in its first launch, but finally, on April 12, 1981, the shuttle took off and completed its Orbital Flight Test Program missions, which was the 20th anniversary of the first spaceflight and first manned human spaceflight in history known as Vostok 1.
Columbia orbited the Earth 36 times, commanded by John Young, a Gemini and Apollo program veteran, before landing at Edwards Air Force Base in California.
Columbia’s last successful mission was to service the Hubble Space Telescope launched in 2002 and was its 27th flight. Its next mission, STS-107, saw a loss of the orbiter when it disintegrated during reentry into the atmosphere and killed all seven of its crew.
February 1, 2003
The STS-107 crew includes, from the left, Mission Specialist David Brown, Commander Rick Husband, Mission Specialists Laurel Clark, Kalpana Chawla, and Michael Anderson, Pilot William McCool, and Payload Specialist Ilan Ramon. (NASA photo. via Wikipedia)
After a successful mission in space, the seven members of the Columbia began their return for reentry into Earth’s atmosphere, but something was about to go wrong.
On this date, February 1, 2003, a small section of insulating foam broke off the shuttle. At first thought, one would think that this would not be a major problem, but when it comes to space flight and all the engineering complexities that come with it, one small defect can lead to disaster, and sadly, that is exactly what happened.
After months of investigation, it was determined that the reason for the foam breaking away from the Shuttle was due to a failure of a pressure seal located on the right side of the rocket booster.
This was the second disaster where we lost astronauts during space shuttle flights. The first was during a Challenger mission on January 28, 1986. This author distinctly remembers watching the take-off of the Challenger and then hearing a large expulsion. Everyone knew at that moment in time, that something was wrong.
The Result
The benefits that humankind has gained from these shuttle flights were enormous. There were missions directly involved in launching and servicing the Hubble Space Telescope, docking with the Russian space station Mir, as well as performing scientific experiments that have ultimately benefited all of us.
In 2011, President Bush retired the Shuttle orbiter fleet and the 30-year Space Shuttle program in favor of the new Constellation program, but there were many costs and delays with this program and subsequently,it was canceled by President Obama in favor of using private companies to service the International Space Station. From then on, U.S. crews accessed the ISS via the Russian Soyuz spacecraft until a U.S. crew vehicle was ready.
Today, we are experiencing achievements never before considered a reality within our lifetime. From the amazing photos from the James Well telescope to our planned missions to the moon and Mars, we have to credit those who came before these missions who deserve all the credit, lest we forget the ones who ultimately gave it all for the benefit of humankind!
Did you ever see the movie “The Incredible Shrinking Man”? If you have, did you ever wonder what would happen to him when he gets so small that he would be the size of an atom? And if so, could he get any smaller?
Maybe we have the answer because atoms are particles that exist in nature and cannot be broken down into smaller components. Everything we see around us is made of atoms, from tables and chairs to people and pandas.
What Makes Up the Atom?
Atoms consist of three basic particles: protons, electrons, and neutrons. Nucleus. This atom has a neutral charge as it contains the same amount of protons and electrons. Photo: iStock
Comparatively speaking, atoms contain mostly space but don’t let that fool you into thinking they are not important. The components of the atom and what makes up the atom are fundamental to our understanding of how matter is assembled. That includes living organisms, both here on Earth and elsewhere.
Now let’s talk about the components. A typical atom consists of a nucleus in its center. This nucleus contains neutrons and protons (together they’re called nucleons). Protons have a positive charge. Neutrons have neither positive nor negative charges. They are ‘neutral’.
Surrounding the nucleus are electrons, which are bodies outside of the nucleus and orbit around it, the same as our planets orbit their sun. Besides the size difference in this comparison, the only major difference is that the planets orbit the sun because of gravity, and electrons orbit their nucleus because of magnetism.
Note: The above scenario is simplified to envision the structure of the atom. The real fact is that electrons do not orbit the nucleus as the planets do. Their actions are more complex than that. See our article on Quantum Theory for a better understanding of how electrons maneuver around the atom’s nucleus.
The Electron
An electron orbits the nucleus of the atom. They are negatively charged particles. The electrons are the only particles outside of the atom’s nucleus.
Neutral Atoms
A neutral atom doesn’t have any charge, so it doesn’t interact with other atoms. You can think of it as a bag of protons, neutrons, and electrons that just float around in space. Most neutral atoms are made up of an equal number of protons, neutrons, and electrons. For example, hydrogen has one proton, one neutron, and one electron. Helium atoms have two protons, two neutrons, and two electrons. This is why we usually refer to these atoms as neutral.
Protons are mainly found in the nucleus, although a few may be found in the outer electron orbit. The number of protons in an atom is what makes it what it is. For example, the elements in the periodic table have numbers associated with them. The number on the upper right corner defines its atomic number; that is, it tells us the number of protons in that element. Atomic weight is the number of protons and neutrons together.
Neutrons
The neutron’s only job is to protect the proton from becoming too positively charged. It doesn’t matter if the atom has too many or too few neutrons; it’s fine either way. The neutron doesn’t interact with electrons or anything else outside the nucleus, so it’s usually just along for the ride.
The valence electrons (see below) of an atom are the electrons that are available to form chemical bonds with other atoms. In general, valence electrons are those that can be shared in their atomic orbitals.
Each main group element has a fixed number of valence electrons, which makes it easier to predict how likely an element is to react with another one and whether or not a given element can act as a reducing agent. Combining all of this information, we can deduce the oxidation state (or valence) of each element and predict whether or not they will react with one another based on these findings. Let’s take a closer look at what these valence electrons are and what role they play in chemical reactions.
When atoms gain or lose an electron, they can bond together with other ions to form other elements; thereby creating a new atom or molecule.
Note: Regardless of the number of electrons or protons that are lost or gained, the ‘makeup’ of the atom is associated with the number of protons that are in the atom, as designated in the upper right corner of each element of the periodic table.
So What are Valence Electrons?
Photo: Pixabay
These are electrons that are in the outermost shell of an atom and if these atoms have less than 8 electrons in this shell, they will look to find other atoms to bond with so that their outer shells can reach 8 electrons.
This is the Octet Rule, which states that atoms with less than 8 electrons in their outer shell will tend to bond with other atoms so that they can share their valence shells and have eight electrons, hence, the “octet (8)” rule.
From our explanation of ions above, it is these electrons that are participating in the chemical reactions (bonding) with other atoms, since they are the farthest away from the nucleus and thus, have the least magnetic force attached to them. In other words, can easily get detached or pulled from a nearby atom.
So, it is these electrons that are the ones that cause the sharing of electrons with other atoms.
Valence Proximity
The electrons that are closer to the nucleus are referred to as core electrons since they aren’t as likely to participate in chemical reactions. The core electrons are essential to the existence of an atom because without them the atom would collapse in on itself. However, they’re not as likely to be involved in chemical reactions with other atoms because they’re so close to the nucleus.
Valence Summary
The valence electrons are the outermost electrons in an atom that is available to form chemical bonds with other atoms. The number of valence electrons for each element is fixed, and we can use the location of these electrons to predict how likely it is for an atom to bond with another. The more stable the core electrons are, the more difficult it will be for an atom to accept its electrons. If you’re studying chemistry and need to understand how chemical reactions work, it’s important to understand what valence electrons are and how they are used during chemical reactions.
All Together Now
The negative charge of the electrons and the positive charge of the protons are what maintain the orbit of the electrons around the nucleus. This is referred to as an electrostatic charge or electromagnetic force, or to put it another way, it is the attraction of the positive charge from the negative charge of the electrons that causes this orbit to exist.
Now, let’s drill down to more specifics of the atom’s components and how their respective charges make up different types of atoms.
Conclusion
Atoms are the smallest particles of matter that cannot be broken down into smaller components. Everything we see around us is made of atoms. Atoms are mostly empty spaces, but they’re fundamental to our understanding of how matter works. A typical atom consists of a nucleus with neutrons and protons (together called nucleons) inside it, as well as electrons that orbit the nucleus. The electrons have a negative charge; the nucleons have a positive charge.
Neutral atoms are made up of an equal number of protons, neutrons, and electrons. Ionic compounds are made up of positively charged ions and negatively charged electrons, and they have a strong attraction to other atoms and molecules. Electrons are negatively charged particles that orbit the nucleus, making them useful tools. Atoms are the building blocks of everything in the universe, and they are fundamental to our understanding of how matter works.
Cartoon illustration of the 1969 moon landing, with a depiction that is nothing more than a Hollywood stunt. IStock
“There are space aliens among us“. “The CIA was involved in the JFK assassination“. “The US government was behind the 9/11 attacks“, and the conspiracy list goes on.
One that made national headlines was by conspiracy theorist talk show host Alex Jones who said that the tragedy at Sandy Hook Connecticut never happened. Alex Jones was sued for his statements, and maybe next time, he will think twice before purporting such statements.
So much for our shock and awe introduction, but let’s tone it down a bit and concentrate on one particular conspiracy theory. For this one, called the moon landing hoax, we are going to take this accusation and rip it apart, one by one. Not because we have to, but by showing how ridiculous these theories are, and hopefully, it will have a domino effect on those who continue to fall prey to these speculations.
“I Am Telling You! The Moon Landing Was a Hoax“
So they say that Neil Armstrong never set foot on the moon and that it was all staged in an unknown location on Earth, with cameras, and props located somewhere in the United States. They go as far as saying that the Disney company staged it in Hollywood.
It is said that when the US flag was put on the moon, the photographs and videos show that it appeared to be moving. The moon has no air or wind, so some say that the landing must be on a Hollywood set and is completely fake.
There are currently six flags on the moon, from each successful moon landing. The flags are made out of nylon and are held up by four interlocking aluminum poles. These poles were designed by many engineers which resulted in a kit named The Lunar Flag Assembly.
Different soil and other aspects such as radiation from the sun needed to be researched to send up a functioning flag and flagpole. The original flag appears to be moving, because the top horizontal pole that holds up the top of the flag out, was not extended by the astronauts. This is why the flag looks rippled in photos and gives the illusion of movement in the NASA video. The flag only moves when it is acted upon and touched by the astronauts (inertia) or when a rocket blast blows by it.
Needless to say, if this was on a Hollywood set, it would be inside, so where is the wind? In addition, if this was such an elaborate hoax, does anyone think they would be that stupid to overlook such an obvious ‘fault’?
Two Shadows
In some photographs, there appear to be two shadows from the astronauts or the Lunar Module. This is easily explained.
Since the Earth is much larger than the moon, it casts a much greater reflection of light from the Sun. In doing so, another shadow appears, which is a direct result of Earth Light (concerning moonlight, but that light is much dimmer). The angle of the shadows is directly related to the time of day, the same as they would appear here on Earth; hence, two shadows appear.
Moon Dust
The way the dust flies from the Apollo 16 footage from NASA shows how the rover kicks up the dust. The dust forms a rooster tail, because of the low gravity environment and of no atmosphere on the moon.
This tail is a product of the lunar environment. Dust on the Earth cannot fly the way it does on the moon. This was confirmed by a study done by two scientists at the Laboratory for Atmospheric and Space Physics (LASP) at the University of Colorado in Boulder. Apollo 16 footage was turned into a mathematical formula that proved that if the dust on Earth was kicked up from a rover it would land very differently.
Buzz Aldrin removing the passive seismometer from a compartment in the SEQ bay of the Lunar Lander. Photo: NASA via Wikimedia Commons
Enormous Effort
To discredit them further, one should consider the enormous work that would need to go into this, even if it was just a Hollywood set. A whole film crew would be required to make this ‘movie’, but it would not just be any movie, it would be a film designed to fool the entire world, including scientists, astronomers, and aeronautical engineers to name a few, and if it was run by the government, a certain amount of politicians as well.
This does not include the renting of the studio and all the bureaucracy that would go with it. In all, there would be no less than a few hundred people hired to fake this event. For so much equipment and so many people involved, why has no one come to speak out?
Yes We Were Really There
Besides the hundreds of people who would have been involved in the ‘Hollywood’ planning, the opposite is also true, as 400,000 NASA employees were hired to accomplish this amazing task some 50 years ago. They even brought back moon rocks!
It is also an insult to the amazing astronauts who have sacrificed their lives for our country, NASA, and the people of the world who live here.
The Apollo 11 crew
There is such indisputable proof that we landed on the moon that it is almost impossible to say it was fake.
In 2015, a conspiracy activist confronted Aldrin in Los Angeles and demanded that he discredit the moon landing by insisting he swear on a Bible that he did land on the moon. The conspiracist continued his rant by calling Aldrin a liar and a coward and would not give Aldrin the space he requested. This was too much for Buzz Aldrin to bear and he punched the man. The man pressed assault charges but the case was thrown out of court because the court concluded that it was the activist who instigated the incident.
This author had the pleasure of meeting Buzz Aldren to discuss his amazing journey and looking back to 1969 when I was a young boy, I can vividly remember staying up with my father to watch this incredible feat of engineering and determination. It was real to us then and it is real to us now!
Note: This article is about fully electric vehicles. Not hybrids.
Photo iStock, Credit: Golden Sikorka
Electric Vehicle Costs
Sales
How Much Do EVs Cost to Buy?
Electrical vehicles can run from $30,000 on the low end to over $100,000 on the high end, with Tesla being the major seller with 1,917,450 vehicles sold since it was first introduced.
Elon Musk who owns Tesla brought in a revenue of $53.8 billion for the year 2021. Aside from Tesla, other manufacturers jumped on the bandwagon to make electric vehicles such as BMW, Nissan, Chevrolet, Ford, Volkswagen, and Kia.
2023 Update: Most EV buyers are heading to Tesler over other manufacturers. According to one dealership, they had to lower the price of their EVs because “They are not selling”.
Charging
How Much Does It Cost to Charge an EV from Your House?
Austin, Texas, USA – 2-1-2021: Tesla Model 3 charging at home in front of the house on the L2 at-home charging that is provided with every Tesla vehicle
According to our calculations, it can cost between $10 – $15 per charge to the recommended 80% when your EV is near zero battery capacity, which equates to 230 miles. That is less than 1/2 the cost of what a conventional gas car would cost to drive the same distance. If your battery has more than zero juice, your electrical cost would be even less to reach the 80% – 230-mile range.
How Much Does It Cost to Charge an EV Outside of Your House?
The cost to charge your EV depends upon several factors, but in general, expect to pay between $20 – $30 for a full charge, which is much better than a conventional gas car expense, since you can add a good 200 – 300 miles back to the battery. Try getting 200 miles for $30 on a conventional car!
Electrical Charging an EV
What is the Difference Between Level 1 and Level 2 Chargers?
There are some major differences. A level 1 charger can be plugged into any 110-volt outlet, but charges at about twice as long as a level 2 charger, which connects to a 220/240-volt outlet. If you recall our article on voltage, it is the amount of current that is ‘pushed’ out. Like a water faucet. The more you move the lever, the faster the water comes out. So a level 1 charger that uses 110 volts, the amount of current is, on average 15 amps. A level 2 charger can draw up to 60 amps, depending on the size of the breaker in the house.
Why are There Two Batteries in My EV?
The main battery is the EV battery that is used to charge the car as well as provide electricity to all accessories, such as heating, air conditioning, radio, lights, etc.
The other battery, which is the standard 12-volt battery that is also found in all conventional gas cars, is used to only start the EV car.
In conventional vehicles, the 12-volt battery is the only one available and subsequently, it is used to service all electrical devices and appliances in the car.
How is Electricity Sent to the Car’s Devices?
The EV uses a DC-DC converter that converts the higher voltage of the EV battery, called the battery pack to the standard 12 volts needed to power the car’s internal electrical systems.
The actual term for the DC-DC converter is called a step-down converter, as it takes in the higher voltage from the EV and steps down the voltage to 12 volts.
How is the 12-Volt Battery Charged in an EV?
Electric vehicles do not have alternators, which are used to charge the 12-volt batteries in gasoline cars. For EVs, the process is the following:
When the car is running, the DC-DC converter draws power from the high-voltage battery (the battery that drives the car) and converts it to 12 volts. This power is then used to keep the 12-volt battery charged.
When the car is plugged into a charger (home or mobile), the charger takes over to power the DC-DC converter, which then charges the 12-volt battery.
That depends upon the charger you are using. Currently, there are two types available. A Level-1 charger that connects to any 110-volt outlet. This can take over six hours to fully charge an EV’s battery.
Then there is a Level-2 charger. Charging of this type usually takes about three to four hours to reach full charge.
Shortly, Level-3, called high-speed chargers, will cut this charging time in half or more.
Does Fully Charging Mean It Charges Up to 100%?
No, all EV battery manufacturers agree that these batteries should not be charged to 100% because it will cause degradation of the battery in the long run. Charging to 80% is the recommended charging level and is usually set as the default for most EVs.
You can override this setting if you are planning a long trip but it is not recommended to keep it at the 100% charge level continuously.
So when we say we are fully charging our EV, it means that we have charged up to the 80% mark.
What if My Battery Goes to Zero Miles Left and I Am Sill on the Road?
Zero mileage does not necessarily mean your EV will stop in its tracks, but you should seek an EV station ASAP! Photo SS.
That’s why we recommend not to let your EV battery go below 30%, like the scenario we mentioned above, but we do understand that there are circumstances when this can happen. Chances are you will still have some power left to drive another few more miles. The mileage algorithms are not perfect and only give you an estimate of how much charge you have, but these estimates are fairly accurate as far as estimates are concerned,
When you see that warning notice on your dashboard, you should immediately shut down all accessories (radio, air conditioner or heater, phone charging, etc.) so that the least amount of power is being drained from the battery, but you should look for a charging station immediately!
Yes, especially in winter. If the temperature goes below 40 F degrees, expect the mileage to diminish faster. Case in point: It was late November. A couple was leaving Manhattan to go to Long Island. Their GPS said it was a 27-mile drive and 45 miles were left on the vehicle, but halfway through their drive, the mileage counter dropped to 10 miles. Fortunately, they found an EV station along the way and were able to charge the car.
This is why we always suggest not letting your EV battery get that low. Once you see it is below 30%, you should charge it.
Can I Charge My EV in the Rain?
This Lectron 240V 40 Amp Level 2 (EV) Charger has a rubber cap that protects water from getting into the charging port. Photo: SS
If the charger has protection such as non-conductive shielding at the port section, then you should be ok if the charger is left outside in the rain.
Check with your charging manufacturer to determine if your home charger is rainproof, but as with all electrical devices, it is always safer to keep these chargers away from anything wet.
Travel and Long Trips
How Many Miles Can I Get on a Full Charge?
Most EVs in the medium-cost range get about 230 miles on an 80% charge. The manufacturers do not recommend charging to 100% as it decreases the integrity of the battery.
Some of the higher ones, such as the Tesla Model S can get up to 394 miles when the batter is at full capacity. On the other hand, a Kia Niro, a great EV with excellent reviews will get about 253 miles on a full charge. And the 2023 Chevy Silverado will have a 200 kWh battery that can take you a good 400 miles before recharging.
You can but it is not advisable at this time; however, if you are bent on taking long drives with your EV, it is highly recommended that you plan your trip with charging along the way as your main priority. Check the highway’s rest areas to see if they have charging stations, but be aware that if you do have to charge your EV during your trip, you may have to stay a while, possibly a good three to four hours at each station.
As President Biden’s infrastructure bill goes into effect, you will see more and more charging stations appear, especially along the highways, but remember, charging an EV is not like pumping gas into a car. You will be there for a few hours each time you charge your vehicle.
Of course, you don’t have to fully charge your car. If you could just add another 100-150 miles, that would cut down the time spent waiting.
Either way, plan so that you can find places to go while the car is charging. Some of these locations may have a restaurant where you can have a long dinner or some towns may have charging ports on the street or in garages, or shopping mall parking lots. As you wait you can traverse through the many stores to kill time.
Then there are the hotels. Call ahead to find out if they have EV portals and if not, where is the closest one?
Shortly, more and more charging stations will be added along the highways and private locations such as housing and hotels. Additionally, in Biden’s Build Back Better plan, he has allocated $5 billion to increase the US infrastructure with over 500,000 new EV portals, and that doesn’t include the additions by private enterprises.
Tell Me More About the Mileage Estimates
A rideshare driver was on his way home from his last drop-off in Manhattan. He previously didn’t realize that the drive for this customer was further out than he thought and he saw that he had only 35 miles left on his battery.
Since he lived just outside the city limits in Long Island, he was sure that he would be able to get home before the battery capacity runs out. He was wrong. And this was during the warmer weather.
When the driver was on the highway, only 13 miles from his home, a warning light came on and said he had zero miles left to drive. What was saying 13 miles all of a sudden went to zero, meaning he had no more battery life in his car.
What happened to that missing 13 miles can only be explained by the fact that the mileage algorithms keep refreshing and new estimates materialize. So it is strongly advised to monitor your mileage with a give or take of 10- 15 miles either way. Thinking this way may help you decide when you should make your next charge.
This is especially true for winter driving as we have stated.
If a warning like this comes on, shut off all unnecessary power and look for an EV station immediately! Photo SS.
Plan Ahead!
If you are going to purchase an EV, plan out your expenses first against what it would cost for a gas car. Then plan out what you plan to do with the car. Will you be using it for local driving or going to work every day or is your main purpose going on long trips? At this current time, we would recommend that you purchase your EV for local driving or work. Whatever you choose, enjoy your ride!
What are the Advantages of Owning an Electric Car?
Of course, the main reason for owning an EV is the savings you get by not having to gas up your car, especially at the prices today. Additionally, EVs don’t have a combustion engine, so there are fewer parts to become defective during your ownership. EVs are said to help with the environment as well and they run very quietly.
What are the Disadvantages of Owning an Electric Car?
The initial expense of purchasing one is what keeps many who would otherwise buy one. Then there is the cost of having a 220-240 volt connection installed into your home circuit box, which can run from $600 to $1000.
If you live in an apartment, you may run into an additional issue if the building or development you are in does not have an EV portal available, but more and more locations and communities are having EV stations installed such as shopping malls, public garages, and of course, many car dealerships.
Do EVs Need Oil Changes?
No. There are no combustion gas engines in electric vehicles, but cars with gas engines need maintenance. The oil used to keep the pistons running smoothly in the chamber of the engine needs to be changed every six months or 3,000 miles. Since no gas engine runs the car, no oil change is needed.
In our previous article, we discussed the advantages of owning an electric vehicle. Now, let’s delve further into the component of an EV – its battery.
Electric vehicle batteries consist of several subcomponents that work together to store and discharge electricity. These individual sections are also known as cell components or cell materials. The parts combine to form the complete battery and each has its unique properties and function.
When considering the various types of electric car batteries, it’s important. Knowing how they function can help you make a more informed decision when purchasing a new electric car, hybrid, or extended-range electric vehicle (EREV) battery.
What are the Components of EV Batteries?
Before we review these components, we need to make sure we understand what an electrode is.
The different elements of an electric car battery include the following:
Anode – The anode is the negative electrode of the battery. It’s made from a metallic oxide material, such as nickel oxide or iron oxide. Anodes are highly porous, allowing for the movement of electrons.
Cathode – The cathode is the positive electrode of the battery. It’s made from graphite, a porous material with high electrical conductivity.
Separator – The separator is a thin, porous material that sits between the anode and the cathode. Its purpose is to keep the electrodes from touching each other. This is important to prevent overheating, which could result in the battery catching fire.
Electrolyte – The electrolyte is a liquid that serves as a conductor of an electric charge. The electrolyte helps move electrons from the anode to the cathode.
Container – The container or housing holds all of the components of the battery in place. It’s made from a corrosion-resistant material, such as stainless steel.
Cooling System – The cooling system ensures that the battery does not overheat. This can happen if the battery is overcharged and the temperature of the battery rises.
Battery Cells
Photo: Wikimedia CC
The most important component of the battery is the cell, which is often made from lithium-ion or lead-acid materials. The cell is composed of active materials, electrolytes, and electrodes that are used to store and discharge electricity. The electrode is a conductor that helps to move electrons from one electrode to the other.
The most common electrodes used to make the anode and cathode are lithium and lead. Batteries can be composed of one cell or many cells connected Single-cell batteries are the most common type of electric car battery. Multicell batteries are used in larger-scale storage, such as solar systems or large-scale energy storage systems.
Electronic Parts
The electronic parts of an EV battery include the battery management system (BMS), the charge controller, and the voltage regulator. The BMS is a b16-Monthn electric circuit that’s used to monitor the health of the battery by measuring voltage levels, charging/discharging rates, and temperature.
The BMS can also help to prevent overcharging and over-discharging of the battery. The charge controller is used to charge the battery. It helps to balance the amount of energy used to charge the battery and the amount of energy generated from the grid or solar panel.
The charge controller also measures the amount of current flowing into and out of the battery during charging. The voltage regulator is used to balance the voltage levels of the battery during charging and discharging.
Lead-Acid Batteries
Lead-acid batteries are the oldest type of battery used in electric cars. They are very cheap to produce and are easy to maintain. However, they are not as efficient as other battery types. They also contain toxic materials, such as sulfuric acid.
These types of batteries are typically used in large-scale grid energy storage systems, such as in a commercial or industrial setting. Lead-acid batteries come in both flooded and sealed types, with the flooded type being the most common. Flooded lead-acid batteries are filled with a liquid electrolyte. They are commonly used in electric vehicle systems.
Lithium-Ion Batteries
Lithium is very popular because of the ease with which it can release its electron, which makes it ideal for the electrons to flow between the anode and cathode.
Lithium-ion batteries are very efficient, have a long lifespan, and are capable of being fully charged in less than one hour. They are less expensive than nickel-metal hydride batteries and are used in a wide range of consumer electronics. Currently, hybrid electric vehicles, plug-in hybrid electric vehicles, and electric vehicles used lithium-ion batteries.
Where Do the Materials that Make Up a lithium-ion Battery Come From?
Generally speaking, five minerals are considered essential for Li-ion batteries:
Nickel-metal hydride batteries are also used in electric cars in both hybrid vehicles and electric vehicles. They are cheaper than lithium-ion batteries and are easier to recycle.
Conclusion
There are many different types of electric car batteries, each with its unique properties and functions. When considering the various types of batteries, it’s important to understand what makes up these different battery types.
Understanding how they function can help you make a more informed decision when purchasing a new electric car battery or an extended-range electric vehicle battery.
When looking for new batteries, make sure to understand their warranties and how they are manufactured to ensure you get the best product possible.
Quantum computing. Close-up of optical CPU process light signal. Photo: iStock
Quantum Introduction
The term ‘Quantum Computing’ hasn’t gotten the much-needed traction in the tech world as yet and those that have traversed through this subject might find it a bit confusing, to say the least.
Some experts believe that this is not just the future, but the future of humanity. Quantum theory moves ahead of the binary computer and ventures into the world of computing that resides at the subatomic level.
If you don’t have a clue what we are talking about, you are not alone. Stay with us through this article where we will discuss quantum computing in great detail—what it is—how it will change the tech world and its practical implications (both for better or worse).
Before we usher in the discussion of this potential life-changing advancement, it is necessary to discuss the platform on which quantum computing is based – Quantum theory.
What is Quantum?
Particles of the atom: protons, electrons, and neutrons. Nucleus. Photo: iStock
Using examples of particle interaction within the atom, a quantum of light would be a photon, and a quantum of electricity would be an electron. There can be no activity smaller than when these particles have an interaction.
In the Beginning
The industrial revolution of the 20th century was one of the greatest milestones of modern history. From the invention of the automobile to industrial steel, elevators, and aircraft, it gave birth to a plethora of things that now define our civilization and will continue to shape the history of our future.
Enter the 21st century and we are watching a transition from the tangible to the intangible (virtual) world; notably, computer technology, its hardware, software, and the world wide web.
Among the many incredible things that are ensuing during this technological revolution is the colossal development in physics, specifically quantum theory. We will try to keep the explanation of quantum theory as simple as possible to make this as interesting and informative as possible.
Modern Physics
The field of physics is divided into two definite branches: classical and modern. The former branch was established during the period of the Renaissance and continued to progress after that.
Classical physics is based on the ideas by Galileo and Newton. Their concepts are focused on the macroscopic (visible to the naked eye) of the world around us.
Conversely, modern physics is about analyzing matter and energy at microscopic levels.
While we are at it, it is important to clarify that quantum theory doesn’t just refer to one idea or hypothesis. It is a set of several principles. We will discuss them simply and remain focused on the items that are relevant to quantum computing.
The work of physicists Max Plank and Albert Einstein in the 20th century theorized that energy can exist in discrete units called ‘quanta’. This hypothesis contradicts the principle of classical physics which states that energy can only exist in a continuous wave spectrum.
In the following years, Louis de Broglie extended the theory by suggesting that at microscopic (atomic and subatomic) levels, there is not much difference between matter particles and energy and both of them can act as either particles or waves as per the given condition.
Lastly, Heisenberg proposed the theory of uncertainty, which entails that the complementary values of a subatomic particle can’t be simultaneously measured to give accurate values.
Neil Bohr’s Interpretation of Quantum Theory: The Primal Basis of Quantum Computing
During the period when quantum theory was extensively discussed among top physicists, Neil Bohr came up with an important interpretation of this theory.
He suggested that light cannot be determined if it is composed of particles or waves, called wave-particle duality until they are particularly found out.
The infamous Schrodinger’s Cat experiment is an easy way to understand this concept. The experiment entails that a cat enclosed in a box with poison could be considered both dead and alive until the box is opened and the cat is observed.
Computer Algorithms
Now, this is the point where the theory demonstrates its potential, but first, a definition of an algorithm – a set of instructions that a computer reads to carry out a function. E..G. You tell the computer to print a document. The computer will read the instructions (algorithm) and perform the printing function.
To understand the quantum-based algorithm, it is essential to understand how contemporary/conventional computing systems work.
Whether it’s a handheld gadget or a supercomputer working in the server room of Google, every current computing device employs the binary language, where every bit of information can exist in either one of two states: 0 or 1 (hence ‘binary’), but not both states at once.
When we discuss quantum algorithms, they follow the idea that any particle-wave system can exist in multiple states at any given time.
This means when data is stored in a quantum system, it can be stored in more than two states. This makes quantum bits (also referred to as ‘qubits’) more powerful than the conventional method of binary computing.
Standard Binary Computing Vs. Quantum Computing
4 rows of 8 bits = 4 rows of bytes. Photo: iStock
The fact that a quantum bit can exist in multiple states gives quantum computing an edge over conventional binary computing. With the help of a simple example, we will try to demonstrate how quantum theory is superior to its classical counterpart.
Picture a cylindrical rod, and each end of the rod is a bit, labeled 1 or 0. When one side is a 1, then the other side must be a 0.
On the other hand, the quantum bit exists in every possible state simultaneously, between the 1 and 0 together.
The above explanation exhibits that quantum bits can hold an unprecedented amount of information and hence the computing governed by this type of algorithm can exceed the processing of any classical computing machine.
A quantum computer can compute every instance between
0 and 1 simultaneously, called parallel computing.
Quantum Entanglement
Apart from storing more information than classical computers, quantum computing can also implement the principle of entanglement.In simple words, this principle will enable every quantum bit to be processed separately.
Beneficial Uses of Quantum Computing
The processing capabilities of quantum computing make it an ideal machine to carry out many tasks where conventional computers fall short.
Science and Life Sciences
The study of complex atomic and molecular structures and reactions is no easy task. A lot of computing capacity is required to simulate such processes.
For instance, the complete simulation of a molecule as simple as hydrogen is not possible with the available conventional computing technology. So, quantum computing can play a significant role in understanding many of the concealed facts of nature and more particularly, of life. Many chemicals and physical and biological research work previously stalled for years can take off after quantum computers become a reality.
Artificial Intelligence and Machine Learning
Even though scientists have made significant inroads in the area of machine learning and AI with the existing computing resources, quantum computing can help take the giant leap to make a machine as intelligent as human cognition.
Machine learning feeds on big data, which is the processing of humongous databases; in other words, big data contains a colossal amount of information, above and beyond what conventional databases contain. And the more information you have, the more intelligent you become!
With the fast processing of quantum computing, even conventional AI will become obsolete, revamping it into a new and more powerful artificial intelligence.
Improvement of General Optimization Procedures
With the addition of big data, the processing that takes place involves more than just reading information. It also involves the ability to make more decisions.
It is called if/then conditions, meaning if something exists and something else acts on it, what could be the outcome? The conditions use variables to calculate each condition.
So, the more data, the more variables to calculate. Putting it another way, the number of permutations and combinations increases, and thus, the amount of processing power increases. When this happens, the amount of data to be processed can increase exponentially.
Some examples would be the optimization of a financial plan might need the processing of several petabytes, equivalent to about 500 billion pages of printed text. Implementation of such extensive computing can only be achieved with the processing power of quantum machines.
Other Side of the Coin: The Dangers Involved with Quantum Computing
One should not be surprised by this heading. We have seen through the course of history how the advent of new technology, intended for the benefit of humankind, is followed by its misuse.
One example is Einstein’s famous equation E = mc2, which gave scientists the idea of building an atomic bomb. Although Einstein was a man of peace and his theory was never indented to be used for destructive purposes, it became so anyway; hence, with quantum computing, this unrestrained processing power can be harnessed for nefarious purposes.
Quantum Computing Puts Data Encryption Practices in a Great Peril
And as we know every precious commodity is vulnerable to vandalism, breaches, and thefts. So, to address this vulnerability, computer scientists have developed encryption modules that are used to lock the data, and only those that have the encryption key can access it, with such a password.
Unauthorized parties can’t get around this encryption without a technique called brute force cracking. But it is important to mention that brute force attacks might only work to crack simple passwords that consist of only a few bytes.
Let’s try to better understand this with the help of numbers
With today’s computers, It could take more than a billion, billion years to crack data that is protected by what is called a 128-bit encryption key, widely used by financial resources on the Internet.
A standard 128-bit key can’t get cracked by the brute force algorithm using the conventional binary coding system, but when we replace this two-state concept with a quantum bit of unlimited existing states, the tables surely get turned.
The result is that a 128-bit Key that is so formidable against the brute force of classical binary supercomputers will fall flat when quantum computing is used to carry out the brute-force algorithm.
No operating quantum machine exists today, but experts have estimated that a quantum supercomputer would be able to crack 128-bit encryption keys within 100 seconds. Compare that to the billon-billion years it would take a binary computer to crack the same code!
Aftermath
If data encryption becomes ineffective, it will expose everything to criminal elements. To understand just a fraction of this devastation, imagine that every person on earth linked to the banking system loses access to their account. The mere idea of such a situation can send chills down your spine.
Apart from that, the neutralization of data encryption can lead to cyber warfare between nation-states. Here also, rogue elements will easily be able to capitalize on the situation.
A global outbreak of war in a world with the existing eight nuclear powers can end up with a dreadful outcome. All things considered, the manifestation of quantum computing can bring along many irretrievable repercussions.
Preparation to Protect Against the Nefarious Use of Quantum Computing
Google and IBM have successfully carried out quantum computing in a controlled environment. So, to think that quantum computers are a distant reality won’t be deemed an insightful judgment. For that matter, businesses should start preparing against this abuse. There is no point in waiting for formal rules and protocols to be issued. Experts working in the area of digital security and cryptography recommend some measures to protect business data in the future from any exploitation of the quantum era.
Conclusion
How technology has progressed in the last few decades is indicative of the fact that quantum computing is the reality of the future. So, the arrival of quantum computers is not the question of ‘if’ – it’s the question of ‘when’.
Quantum theory, with all its benefits for the development of life sciences, the financial sector, and AI poses a great threat to the existing encryption system, which is central for the protection of any type of confidential data. The proper approach for any nation and business is to accept this unwanted aspect of quantum mechanics as a technological hazard and start preparing against it with the help of experts.
With that said, it will also be a blessing when used proactively for the benefit of humankind and we look forward to a better lifestyle for each of us when quantum computing becomes a reality.
Before we learn about kilowatts and kilowatt-hours, let’s get a jump start (pun intended ????) on what these terms mean.
The Units of Electrical Power
Note: If you are not a physics enthusiast and want to skip the calculations, you can jump to this section.
Let’s travel into our way back machine and go back to high school physics 101. These terms and measurements are for background purposes only. We will not be using them later on, but understanding these concepts can help you better comprehend how power (energy) is referenced in units of watts (w) and how they are calculated. Let’s do it!
Speed
The rate of time at which an object is moving along a path. Units: Length, Time Example: The car traveled 1 mile in 60 seconds or 1 mile/minute. Further Reading:What is speed in physics?
Velocity
The rate of time at which an object is moving along a path in a particular direction. Units: Length, Time, Direction. More precisely, length/time (speed) in a particular direction. Example: The car traveled 1 mile/minute going west. Further Reading: What is the difference between speed and velocity?
Acceleration
When we speak about acceleration, it is the rate at which the velocity changes. In other words, velocity doesn’t stay constant. Units: Feet per second per second or feet/second squared. Example: A plane traveling south accelerates from 550 m/h (mph) to 600 m/h over a time period of 40 seconds. It has a change in velocity from 550 m/h to 600 m/h and the time period that this occurs in 40 seconds. Further Reading: Speed, velocity, and acceleration.
Newton
Here we add a new component – Force. When we talk about the measurements of Newtons, we are talking about an acceleration (remember, acceleration means just a change in velocity) of an object.
By Mhermsenwhite – Own work, CC BY-SA 4.0, https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?curid=70624309
One newton is the force needed to accelerate one kilogram of mass at the rate of one meter per second squared in the direction of the applied force. Simply put, this is the amount of push (force) of one kilogram of an object that weighs one kilogram at a changing velocity (acceleration) of one meter per second per second. Units: 1 kg⋅m/s2 Example: Joe is pushing a box weighing one kg down the road at 1 m/s2
Joule
Joules refer to the amount of work done. A joule is equal to the work done by a force of one newton moving one meter, so Joe has pushed the box weighing one kg down the road at 1 m/s squared for a distance of 1 meter. A joule is also referred to as energy.
Say Watt?
The number of Joules that an electrical device (e.g a lightbulb) is burning per second. Joules and watts both refer to work and equate to power, but both are interchangeable.
Here is the connection:
1 Watt = 1 Joule per second (1W = 1 J/s), so a watt is the amount of energy (in Joules) that an electrical device (such as a light) is running per second. So if a device is burning 500 watts for 60 seconds, then a Joule would equate to 500 * 60 = 30,000 J. Moving ahead, if an air conditioner is burning 1000 watts for 1 hour (60 sec * 60 min = 3600 seconds), then that equates to 1000 watts * 3600 seconds = 3,600,000 Joules (of energy that was used for that hour).
A kilowatt is equal to 1000 watts, so 1 kWh represents the amount of energy transfer that occurs over one hour from a power output of 1000 watts (i.e., joules per second). Thus 1 kWh is equal to 3,600,000 joules of energy transfer (work).
What Does This Mean?
It means that the work of one newton is being performed in the form of electrons that are being pushed through the wire per meter. Saying it in a simpler form, one watt is one joule of energy running a device per second.
Just Tell Me in Plain English What a Watt is!
Consider this to be a one-watt light bulb. If it was a two-watt light bulb, it would be about twice as bright. If it was a 500-watt bulb, more power is needed to provide that additional wattage; hence, more power or we can say more current or voltage is needed, and up goes your electric bill! See how it works? Photo by LED Supermarket
Glad you asked. 1 watt is equal to voltage times current: W=EI (don’t worry, you don’t have to memorize this formula). Also known as power, a watt is a unit of power. The more the voltage and/or current that flows through the wire, the more power (watts) is used to run the device.
Let’s Talk About Time
Devices run for a period of time, right? So we have to add this value to our watt calculations. That way, we will know how many watts are used for a certain period of time, and as we will see later, this will help us determine what it costs to run electrical devices, or more specifically, what the electric company charges us and why.
Examples: Joe turned on a one-watt lightbulb for 60 seconds, so that is equal to 60 watts.
Now Joe turned on a 250-watt lightbulb for 2 minutes, so that is equal to (250 * 0.333 hours) = 83.25 watts.
(Remember, for you physics guys, 83.25 watts is the same as saying that 4995 joules of power have been generated).
We’ll be going into this in another article, but just to enlighten you, if your electric company charges you 14.34 cents per 1000 watts used per hour (that’s what they generally charge in New York), then, using the example above, you have paid the company 14.34 cents * (per 1000 watts) * 0.25 watts * 0.0333 / hour (2 minutes) = .036 cents per hour.
If Joe ran the 250-watt bulb for 1 hour, then he would be paying 3.6 cents per hour, but if Joe ran a 1000-watt device for 1 hour, he would be paying 14.34 cents.
OK, but if Joe ran the 1000 watt bulb for 10 hours, then he would owe the energy company $143 cents or $1.43.
OK forget about Joe. What if your electric company charges you 14.34 cents per hour for a 2000-watt air conditioner? You would be paying 29 cents per hour, so if you run the air conditioner for 10 hours each day, you would be paying $2.90 every day. That’s $29.00 every 10 days or close to $100 per month.
Say 1000 Watts!
Are you getting tired of hearing of thousands of watts? This author is also, so let’s call 1000 watts – 1 kilowatt. There you go. Kilo means 1000 so 1kw is 1000 watts.
If you run a 1000-watt device for 1 hour, then the designation is 1Kwh (1 kilowatt-hour or you can say a 1-kilowatt device is running for one hour), denoted as kWh. So, 1 kilowatt is equal to 1,000 watts. If a unit consumes 60 watts hourly and runs for 60 hours, then the energy consumption rate will be 60 watts x 60 hours to equal 3,600 watts per hour, which is equal to 3.6 kWh of electricity.
Ok we know, you want to know what it cost to run your electrical devices in your home and you probably want to know about your air conditioner for starters. Let’s just say that a typical air conditioner runs about 3 kWh per day. To calculate how much that costs you, just call your local energy company to get the correct number. For our area, Nassau County, the cost is 7 cents per kWh. If you want to know more about your air conditioner costs, check it out here.
