Geology

Best Yellow Gemstones for Wedding and Engagement Rings

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Yellow gemstone
Image by sara graves from Pixabay

Yellow gems are often an indicator of warmth, openness, and optimism. If you’re looking to try something other than colorless diamonds for your engagement or wedding ring, a yellow gemstone can be a great way to showcase your sunny disposition on your finger. 

Since wedding and engagement rings are everyday jewelry, we have put together a list of the best yellow gemstones that are unique and durable. 

When searching for a gemstone, you need to consider two main factors: 

    • Toughness – Measured by the Mohs hardness scale
    • Clarity – The transparency and inclusions or blemishes of a stone

Now that you know how to evaluate a gemstone, let’s jump in and have a look at the best yellow gemstones for engagement and wedding rings. 

Citrine

Stemming from the French word “citron” which means “lemon,” citrine is a type of quartz stone found in multiple shades, ranging from brownish-yellow to yellow-orange to lemon yellow. Although little odd, reddish-orange citrines are often considered more valuable than bright yellow citrines. 

This gemstone is pretty transparent and is often faceted even more to make it appear more lustrous. With a hardness of 7 on the Mohs scale, the durability of the stone resists scratching. Also, since quartz is found abundantly, it is easy to find citrines at budget-friendly prices. 

Citrines look amazing in white gold or rose gold settings. 

Yellow Diamonds

Diamonds are surely forever. With a hardness of 10 on the Mohs scale, colored or not, diamonds are the most durable and scratch-proof stones to exist. Although colorless diamonds are the most popular choice for engagement and wedding rings, if it does not truly capture your personality, a yellow diamond will save the day! 

With traces of nitrogen present during the formation of diamonds that gives them their yellow color, yellow diamonds are very commonly available. Canary yellow is the purest and most intense shade of yellow. However, a majority of yellow diamonds feature hints of other colors. Yellow diamonds with green tints are more popular and expensive, and yellow diamonds with brown tints are less-favored and less pricey. 

Just like colorless diamonds, yellow diamonds look great in every setting. 

Yellow Topaz

Signifying happiness and prosperity, yellow topaz is the birthstone for the month of November. Topaz receives its name from the Sanskrit word tapas, which means “fire.” This stone gets its name due to its fiery appearance. 

Topaz is available in an extensive range of bright and warm colors ranging from orange to dark yellow to a vibrant yellow. The darker variety of topaz is known as the Imperial Topaz. Although this variety is quite rare, which is why it’s valuable, its merry yellow shades are commonly available and are typically inexpensive. 

Topaz gems generally have a high clarity with minimal, almost non-visible inclusions. The brilliance of this stone is enhanced even more when it is faceted. With a hardness ranking of 8 on the Mohs scale, Topaz is a durable and scratch-resistant stone, making it suitable for everyday wear. 

Yellow Tourmaline

Tourmalines are often nicknamed the ‘rainbow gemstone’ since they can be found in almost every color. However, it can be quite challenging to find yellow tourmalines since they are quite rare. Vibrant yellow tourmalines get their color from iron and manganese during their formation. Pure and natural yellow tourmalines are difficult to find, so you can expect many inclusions. However, faceting helps enhance the brilliance of these gems. 

With a ranking of 7 to 7.5 on the Mohs hardness scale, this gemstone has considerably good durability only through proper maintenance. Tourmaline is seen as a symbol of strength and healing in many cultures. Yellow tourmalines are specifically believed to heal one’s ego and self-esteem. 

Yellow Sapphire

You probably imagine a big blue stone when you think of sapphires. Sorry to break it to you but not all sapphires are blue! Well, the truth is that sapphires are found in every color except for red. Made of corundum, sapphires turn yellow due to iron impurities during crystal formation. 

Yellow sapphires occur in many shades ranging from pale to vivid. The higher the iron content, the brighter the stone, and the more expensive it will be. Nevertheless, yellow sapphires are generally much less expensive than blue sapphires. Many sellers use heat treatment to improve the yellow coloring of sapphires. 

With a ranking of 9 on the Mohs hardness scale, sapphires are almost as hard as diamonds. They are resilient gems and can withstand breakage and scratches. However, it will require some maintenance to prevent clouding. 

Yellow Zircon

Zircon stems from the Persian word “zargun” that means  “gold-colored”. Zircons are available in various shades ranging from gold brown to vivid yellow. The bright yellow hues of this stone can be produced through heat treatment. When properly faceted, this beautiful stone produces a stunning brilliance that can even give competition to a diamond. 

Although zircons appear very similar to diamonds, the biggest drawback of this stone is that it is soft and brittle. With a hardness of 6 to 7.5 on the Mohs scale, zircons need to be used very carefully to prevent chipping or scratching. 

Yellow gems traditionally symbolize optimism, luck, self-esteem, and other positive energies and behaviors. Although yellow gems are an unconventional choice for engagement and wedding rings, they can be a great way to showcase the confidence and warmth in you. We hope this information on yellow gemstones will help you get started on your search for the perfect wedding or engagement ring!

 

Minerals

8 Best Red Gemstones

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Red Gemstones
Image by Peter Lomas from Pixabay

Blue and green are the most coveted gemstone colors due to their calming nature, but red gems are vibrant and powerful stones that speak of luxury and extravagance. Although red gems look great in all settings, they look even better with yellow gold. It is time to spruce up your jewelry box with a few new red gemstone jewelry pieces that will make you stand out from the crowd. 

Here is a list of some of the best red gemstones.

  • Ruby

Whenever you think of a red gemstone, rubies are probably the first gems that pop into your head. Not only is ruby the most prevalent red gemstone, but it is also one of the most stunning and ravishing ones. With a lush and vibrant color, this exquisite gem is a favorite among many people. Ruby has a hardness score of 9 on the Mohs scale, which makes it durable and robust, especially for jewelry pieces. 

Although this stunning stone is found in various red hues, the mesmerizing “pigeon blood” color of rubies is the most sought-after and expensive variety. However, you should be aware of the fact that most rubies available in the market receive heat treatment for the enhancement of their color. Moreover, synthetic rubies are also widely available, which is why you should always ask for a certificate when purchasing rubies. 

  • Garnet

The January birthstone garnet is most certainly one of the most brilliant red gemstones you can find. Although they aren’t hard as rubies, they are still considered resilient enough to withstand adverse conditions. The most interesting fact about garnets is that it is among the first gemstones to be discovered in the world. 

Generally, these red gems have great clarity since they don’t have any visible inclusions. Also, many people confused these stones with rubies due to their intense red color. Another interesting fact about garnets is that they come in every color of the rainbow and blue garnet is considered the rarest and most expensive variety. 

  • Red Diamond

Red diamonds are the rarest, most unique fancy colored diamond. Made with pure carbon, this diamond is free of all chemical impurities that create other types of stones. Only a handful of mines produce red diamonds, which is why it is one of the rarest and most valuable of all diamonds. In fact, this stunning gemstone is so rare that you can only buy it in an auction. Also, it is extremely challenging to find a red diamond over 1 carat, so if you do come across one that’s bigger than a carat, you’re probably very lucky. 

  • Red Agate

It’s tough not to fall in love with agates. This beautiful and joyful gemstone is among the most versatile crystals in the world. From wind chimes created with delicate slices of the stone to dainty bracelets, there is something about this stone’s energy that is fun and light. Vibrant red agate is no different.

This stunning gem often features grey or white stripes that form a gorgeous effect. It can be rare and difficult to find red agate in a distinct color without the stripes. If you do happen to find an agate, you should definitely ask the seller if it is dyed. Many jewelers dye this gemstone to cover its natural bands and make it more appealing. 

  • Red Coral

The most organic gem of all red gemstones, red corals are absolutely beautiful. They come from a living organism, just as pearls are gained through oysters. Produced by coral polyps, this stone can either be translucent or opaque. It is also considered to have mental, physical, and emotional healing properties, which is why many people wear red coral jewelry. Since corals generally have a low hardness score, usually between 3 and 4 on the Mohs scale, you need to be careful when wearing coral jewelry. 

  • Carnelian

With a glossy luster and a stunning red color, the carnelian is one of the most desired and popular gemstones on the market. With a hardness score of 7 on the Mohs scale, this gem is quite durable. There was a time when carnelians possessed an extremely high value as they were believed to be very rare. However, even though carnelians aren’t that rare in present times, they are still valued for their vintage charm. 

  • Fire Opal

A rare and striking gem, the fire opal originally comes from Mexico, with its colors ranging from light yellow to vivid orange and red. Just like other opals, the gemstone can be quite fragile since it isn’t hard. However, jewelry featuring fire opals can be truly mesmerizing. Fire opals can be used to make some breathtaking jewelry pieces that can last you a long time if they’re well taken care of. 

  • Red Zircon

Out of all red gemstones, red zircons are probably the most underrated gems. Most people confuse zircons, a natural gem, with cubic zirconia, synthetic gems. The fact is that red zircons occur naturally, even though they might be rare. These gemstones are found in vivid colors that can feature purple or orange tints. However, you need to be very careful when wearing your red zircon jewelry since this stone can be a little brittle. Nevertheless, red zircons make a brilliant addition to any jewelry piece. 

The Bottom Line

Jewelers will forever favor red gems for their rich colors and associations with love and passion. The fiery and vibrant appearance of red gemstones makes them an excellent focal point in any piece of jewelry because they add an extra level of depth and beauty. The color red further enhances the glamor and charm of the gemstone and makes a statement, especially if the stone has some special meaning attached to it. 

If you love all things red, this list of the best red gemstones should help you decide on the stone you can add to your jewelry. 

 

 

Minerals

What is Soapstone

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No, you can’t clean your hands with it, but you can use it to make bowls and ornaments. How does that sound? 

Since ancient times, soapstone has been a popular medium for carving. Thousands of years ago, Native Americans used this rock to make smoking pipes and bowls, and ornaments. Prior to that, the Scandinavians started using this soft-rock during the Stone Age and continued to do so throughout the Bronze Age. It was then that humans realized that the stone could be easily carved. They also found out that soapstone can absorb heat and release it slowly, making it perfect for cookware.

Its unique properties and ease of extraction inspired humans to use the material for a variety of uses. In this post, we take a closer look at soapstone, its properties, and its uses. Let’s get started. 

What is Soapstone?

Soapstone
Image by kalhh from Pixabay

Soapstone, in its purest essence, is a metamorphic rock that primarily contains talc. Alongside, it also includes minerals such as carbonates, micas, chlorite, pyroxenes, amphiboles, and several other minerals in trace quantities. Since the stone contains a large amount of talc, it is soft, making it ideal for carving. Moreover, it is typically gray but can also be found in several other colors such as green, blue and brown. The stone got its name from the softness and a texture that closely resembles soap; hence it’s known as soapstone. 

If you are planning to purchase soapstone (for any of its diverse uses), you need to know that miners and drillers use this name for any soft rock that has a soapy or slippery feel. Moreover, craftsmen also refer to other soft stones such as serpentine or alabaster as soapstone. So make sure you know the differences so you can end up with the suitable material. 

The Formation of Soapstone 

As mentioned earlier, soapstone is a metamorphic rock, and it usually forms at the convergent plate boundaries. Since it is the region that is most exposed to heat and pressure, convergent plate boundaries provide the perfect environment where the rock can be metamorphosed into soapstone. The rock is abundantly found in Southeastern Brazil in the state of Minas Gerais. 

Physical Properties 

Soapstones of different colors
Soapstones of different colors. Wikimedia CC BY-SA 3.0

If you look at the composition of the rock, it is almost 100% talc and hence it shares many physical and chemical properties of talc. Given its physical properties, soapstone is suitable for several uses.

 

Some of the physical properties of soapstone include the following.

    • Soft and easy to carve 
    • Nonporous, hence nonabsorbent  
    • Poor heat and electricity conductivity 
    • Resistant to alkalis and acid 
Talc Block
Talc Block Wikimedia CC

While soapstone primarily contains talc, its composition also depends on the parent rock since it is a metamorphosed rock. Moreover, the temperature and pressure conditions of the environment also play a role in how the rock behaves.


Furthermore, the level of metamorphism also plays an integral role in determining the grain size.

Soapstone with fine grains is perfect for detailed carving. Lastly, the presence of other minerals and the level of metamorphism can influence the hardness of the stone. 

Hence, you can expect that the physical properties of the soapstone can vary significantly depending upon the location of extraction that they depend on.

    • The level of metamorphism, 
    • The temperature and pressure conditions, and 
    • Presence of other minerals

Common Uses of Soapstone 

Given its unique physical properties, soapstone has a variety of uses. Again, its use depends on the grain size, hardness, and level of metamorphism as all of this affects the physical properties of the rock.  Some of the common uses of soapstone include the following. 

    • Cooking pots, slabs, and boiling stones, 
    • Electric panels, 
    • Cemetery markers, 
    • Countertops in labs and kitchens, 
    • Sinks,
    • Plates and bowls, 
    • Sculptures and carvings, 
    • Floor tile, and wall tiles, 
    • Metals casting molds, and 
    • Cold stones. 

The uses of soapstone were first identified by mankind during the Stone Age when people carved their first cooking pots with the mineral without using any metal tools. Later, skilled craftsmen carved into the mineral and identified all the other uses. Since then, it is a popular medium for carving for skilled artisans. 

Geological Occurrence 

The rock is abundantly found worldwide, but it is present in considerable quantities in the following regions. Most of the soapstone that you find today comes from China, India, and Brazil. Significant deposits of soapstone can also be found in Canada and Australia and several other European countries, and the United States. As mentioned earlier, soapstone from different countries will have different physical properties and hence different usage. 

Soapstone Around the World 

Brazil 

Several of the world’s largest quarries for soapstone are found in Brazil. Large slabs of soapstone are quarried in the region and are extensively used for sinks, countertops, and carving sculptures. The famous Christ, the Redeemer statue in Rio de Janeiro, which is around 98 feet tall, contains many soapstones. 

Asia 

Soapstone is also quite popular in Asia and can be found in several colors. The Asian soapstone is primarily used for carving. Moreover, it is also used for cooking utensils such as bowls, plates, and teapots. Soapstone artifacts have been excavated from the Indus Valley in huge quantities, proving that the rock was extensively used during the Harappan period, which dates from 2600 B.C. to 1900 B.C. 

Europe 

Soapstone was a popular rock in Rome and ancient Greece. Archeologists have found evidence that the Vikings also used soapstone as it reflects heat. 

Final Words 

Soapstone is a metamorphic rock that primarily contains talc. However, depending upon the region where it comes from, the level of metamorphism, and the parent rock, it can also contain other minerals as well. Hence, no two samples of soapstone that come from different origins can have the same physical properties. However, soapstone is a soft rock that has several uses.  

Minerals

Top 7 Green Gemstones

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Green Emerald
Image by Engin Akyurt from Pixabay

What do you think about when the color green is mentioned?  St. Patrick’s Day and leprechauns are the most popular answers. This green we are going to talk about may intrigue you just as much as St. Patrick’s day, but there is no parade. Instead, you can wear it as jewelry, even if you’re not Irish.

These are the popular green gemstones and their stunning color offers sophistication and elegance, making it hard for other colored gemstones to compete. 

Since the color green is associated with nature, green-colored stones symbolize life, renewal, freshness, and energy. It also has a peaceful and soothing feel, which further amplifies people’s likeness towards these colored gems.  

Emeralds are probably the first gems that pop into your head. However, there are over 100 types of green gemstones used in various types of jewelry. 

Here is a list of the top green gemstones that look stunning. 

  • Emeralds

An emerald gemstone in organic conditionEmeralds are the most popular green gemstone of all time. As a member of the illustrious beryl family, this gemstone has a graceful appeal to it. Emeralds have been in use since antiquity. In fact, Cleopatra, the famous Egyptian queen, was well-recognized for wearing them. 

The most crucial factor to consider when buying an emerald is the color of the stone. Let’s face it: an emerald is nothing if it is not green. The more vivid and intense the color, the more expensive the stone. Almost all emeralds contain inclusions and eye-clean emeralds are extremely rare, so the lesser the inclusion, the more valuable the stone. 

With a 7.5 to 8 rating on the Mohs scale, emeralds are considered fairly durable. However, if an emerald contains too many inclusions, the stone can weaken and chip more easily. Emeralds are commonly treated in order to enhance their color and stability to raise their value. Therefore, it is important to choose a reliable vendor when purchasing this expensive gem. 

  • Green Diamonds

When you think of diamonds, you probably instantly imagine a beautiful, colorless stone. However, even though the transparent variety is more popular, diamonds are found in an extensive range of colors, including green. Green diamonds are extremely rare, so they are also quite expensive, but not as much as red or pink diamonds. They may range in shades from faint to deep green and sometimes even feature secondary tones, such as brown, blue, or yellow. 

Although most colored diamonds get their color from certain trace elements, green diamonds are quite unique in this aspect. These beautiful stones get their coloring from natural radiation that occurs over a period of hundreds of years. While radiation is generally dangerous, green diamonds are quite safe to wear. 

  • Green Sapphires

Sapphires are commonly associated with the color blue, which is why green sapphires weren’t considered desirable. However, with rapidly changing tastes and perceptions of gemstones, green sapphires are now becoming increasingly popular. This stunning stone occurs quite rarely and gets its color mainly from the presence of iron. 

With its shades varying from dark to faint green, with slight hints of yellow or blue, green sapphires are found in a stunning range of hues. Like all other sapphires, green sapphires also have a score of 9 on the Mohs scale, making them one of the most durable gemstones of all time. The high durability of the stone, combined with its brilliance, makes it a fantastic choice for all types of rings. 

  • Jade

Jade in ChinaJade is nearly a synonym for the word ‘green.’ It is one of the few stones that is actually named after a color and is one of the top green gemstones of all time. This beautiful mineral can be traced back to over 7,000 years ago. It has been used since ancient times, especially in China. 

This stone has two main types: jadeite and nephrite. Jadeite is the more valuable variety due to its higher quality, while nephrite is found in higher quantities and is comparatively less expensive. Although jade is a fairly soft stone with a rating of 6 on the Mohs scale, this stone can withstand a lot of adversity due to its compact composition. Faceting jade isn’t a very popular practice, but it sure can give the gem an added brilliance.

  • Green Agate

Agate occurs in a variety of colors, but green is one of the more popular and rare varieties. It is typically found with many inclusions and is typically smooth with a vitreous luster. Green agates are generally translucent to opaque. 

This gemstone is usually cut in cabochons, and sometimes it is faceted for enhanced depth and light reflection. With a Mohs scale rating of 7, agates have pretty good durability and are suitable for all jewelry. Although this gem is generally affordable, the quality of the setting and the workmanship involved in the jewelry piece can hike up its overall price. 

  • Demantoid Garnet

Demantoids are a part of the andradite variety, belonging to the garnet family. The most expensive variety of garnets, the occurrence of demantoids is quite rare. Since most demantoid gems occur in sizes under 2 carats, finding a large stone is pretty difficult.

This gem occurs in colors ranging from faint to vivid. Some stones also feature secondary hints of brown or yellow, making them less desirable. The most valuable kind of demantoids is the green ones that come from Russia. Certain demantoids also feature extremely rare horsetail-shaped inclusions that aren’t found in other gems. These inclusions add quite a bit of value to the gem, making this gemstone one of the few stones that increase in value due to its impurities. 

  • Amazonite

Amazonite gets its name from the Amazon Rainforest despite the fact that there aren’t any amazonite deposits in the area. Occurring in shades of light green to a blue-green color, the deep, leaf-green color is the most highly desired variety of the stone. 

This beautiful gem features white lines and streaks that form random patterns and add character and depth to the stone. Amazonite is found in abundant quantities, which is why it is easily available and isn’t highly priced. Also, this gem usually isn’t enhanced or treated in any way. 

The jewelry world has many beautiful green gemstones to offer. Some other green gemstones that didn’t make the above list include green tourmaline, aventurine, malachite, green topaz, green zircon, green fluorite, green pearl, and green apatite. 

So if you go to the next St. Patrick’s day parade, wear a large green gemstone necklace. Since it is early July, you have 10 months to save up for it! 

Minerals

Ethiopian Opal – The Increasingly Popular Gemstone from Africa

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The Emerging Opal Heavyweight of the Opal Family

Ethopian Opal
Image by Varga from Pixabay

The opal has a reputation of being an exquisite mineral that looks fantastic when worn as jewelry. In the world of mystical healing, the opal ensures hope, innocence, and purity.

Over the last 100 years, Australia has been the most prominent force in the opal market. It was estimated that around 95% of the global opal production used to come from Australia. However, things started to change as Ethiopian opal was discovered in 1994. Today, Ethiopian opal is one of the increasingly popular gemstones that is on its way to break the century-old Australian dominance in the opal market. 

Ethiopian opals are not only more beautiful but are also more cost-effective compared to the same gemstone that comes from Australia. This post is all about Ethiopian opals, properties, and the future of this gemstone. So let’s take a closer look at the Ethiopian opals. 

A Brief History 

The journey started when the precious stone was mined in Ethiopia and made its way to the market in 1994. The initial opal deposits were found in the Menz Gishe District on the northern side of the Shewa Province. The precious opal that was mined in this region was found in various colors, ranging from red to orange and brown. Moreover, opal from this region was mined in white, yellow, and transparent body colors. Because of the location of these opals mined, they became known as “Shewa opals.”

This small discovery in 1994 put Ethiopia on the global opal map. Later, more important deposits of opal were identified in Ethiopia in 2008 near Wegel Tena in the province of Wollo. The opals discovered in this region were more stable than those found in the Shewa province, and hence they became popularly known as “Welo opals.”

The third major deposit of opals in Ethiopia was found in the Wollo province again in 2013. The distinct aspect of this opal deposit was the colors ranging from translucent gray to black. 

As a result of the important discoveries in the years 2008 and 2013, Ethiopia has emerged as a major supplier of opal in the global gemstone market. The country is now producing precious gemstones with a variety of body colors and patterns ranging from transparent to yellow, orange, red, gray, and black. 

Welo Opals – Precious Fire Opals 

Most of the opal produced by the Wollo province is yellow, orange, or red in color and hence known as “precious fire opals.” Since the body color meets the criteria of fire opal, and the pattern, also known as the play-of-color fulfills the definition of precious opal. Hence the gemstone is known as “precious fire opals.”

Welo Opals – Hydrophane Opals

Apart from the precious fire opals, the other most prominent category of opals mined in Ethiopia is known as hydrophane opals. The gemstone gets its name due to its ability to absorb water, hence known as hydrophane. 

When the stone absorbs water, the color (or the transparency) of the gemstone also changes. Since this type of opal is porous, its specific gravity is much lower than other types of opal. Some of the hydrophane opals have a much higher ability to absorb water and can gain weight up to 15%. However, given its porous nature, this type of Ethiopian opals has durability issues as they can crack due to excessive water absorption. Due to the porous nature of the gemstone, it is recommended not to immerse them in water. The absorption of water doesn’t take right away and may need a few hours to absorb a significant amount of water. 

However, hydrophane opal can dewater if it is allowed to dry for a few days, and the process may take up to a few weeks before the gemstone returns to its original color and properties.  

Since water can modify the appearance and properties of hydrophane opals, it’s best to examine it thoroughly before you make a purchase decision. 

Treatments for Ethiopian Opals 

While Ethiopian opals are usually sold in their natural state, some of them undergo treatments. Since the gemstone is porous, it makes it a perfect candidate for several types of treatment. However, once the natural gemstone undergoes a specific treatment, its price can decrease significantly compared to opal in its natural state. 

Some of the treatments that Ethiopian opals generally undergo include the following. 

Sugar-Acid Treatment

The treatment involves the soaking of opal in a warm sugar solution, followed by a treatment involving sulfuric acid. Once the opal absorbs sugar water, it is then submerged in sulfuric acid. The acid oxidizes the sugar, resulting in the formation of dark-colored carbon stains on the stone. As a result, the gemstone gets a grayish-brown color. However, the treatment does not go unnoticed and can be detected under microscopic examination. 

Dye Treatment

Another common treatment that Ethiopian opals undergo is the dye treatment. It is particularly common because Ethiopian opals are porous and can easily absorb liquids. The treatment can be used to give color to transparent opals. Moreover, it can also be used to enhance the gemstone’s natural color. 

The treatment can often be detected under microscopic examination. Moreover, it can also be identified by cutting into the gemstone. 

Charcoal Burning Treatment

Charcoal burning, also known as a smoke treatment, causes very fine smoke particles to enter the porous spaces of opal. As a result, the gemstone changes its color. The treatment involves wrapping the gemstone in paper and heating it to a point where the paper releases fine particles of black smoke, which can enter the pores of the gemstone, which causes the color of the gemstone to darken. 

There are several other types of treatments for opal, including oiling and fracture treatment and resin treatment. However, they can also lead to a reduction in the price of the gemstone in its natural state. 

The Future of Ethiopian Opals

Ethiopian opals have emerged as a major force in the global opal market, and there is still a long way to go. The future for this precious stone from Africa is very bright as Ethiopian opals are becoming much more visible in the gem and jewelry market. Moreover, an increasing number of buyers for this gemstone is now acknowledging the precious stone from Ethiopia for its beauty and low price. Furthermore, all of this has happened without the intervention of a multinational mining giant spending millions of dollars to extract and promote the precious stone. 

Coobe Pedy Opal Doublet Mineral
Coobe PedOpal Doublet Minera

From transparent to vivid precious fire opals, there is a lot that Africa has to offer, that too at a very affordable price compared to similar-appearing gemstones from Australia.

So far, a significant amount of Ethiopian opal is being produced, and the trend will likely continue in the coming years. Moreover, it is expected the Ethiopian opals will give a tough time to the opponent from Australia that has dominated the global opal market for over a century. 

Minerals

Red Beryl – A Rare Gemstone

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Red Beryl mineral on a red background
Image by pixabay.comusersalekseynemiro

You may already know about bluish-green beryl – yes, it’s emerald. And the green-blue beryl, which is aquamarine. And of course, about their pink to the orange-pink cousin, morganite. 

But what about another variation of the extremely rare mineral that is one of the gem connoisseurs’ favorite stones?  If you haven’t guessed it yet, that rare crystal is red beryl. 

According to the Utah Geological Survey estimates, for every 150,000 gem-quality diamonds unearthed, only a single crystal of red beryl is found. 

In this post, we look at the rare and precious – red beryl. 

A Precious and Rare Gemstone 

Red beryl is often known as a one-source gemstone. While the crystal has been found at a few locations worldwide, including Utah, New Mexico, and Mexico, there is only a single location in the entire world where you can find crystals of red beryl that are suitable for gem cutting.

Red beryl can only be found in the Wah Wah Mountains, Utah. In comparison, the crystals extracted from the other locations are only a few millimeters in length and are too small to be used as gemstones. 

But Why is Red Beryl So Rare?

The formation of the red beryl crystal requires a specific geochemical environment. Some of the essential elements required for the formation of red beryl include beryllium and manganese. Apart from the abundance of these minerals, the correct geochemical conditions are also critical, facilitating the crystallization process.

Furthermore, fractures and cavities are also another critical requirements for the appropriate growth of red beryl crystals. Hence, red beryl remains one of the rarest crystals in the world. 

Red Beryl Properties 

Red Beryl in a crystal perched on white rhyolite matrix
1.5 cm, doubly-terminated, gemmy and lustrous crystal perched on white rhyolite matrix.Photo: Rob Lavinsky, Wikipedia, CC

If you look at the physical properties of the rare and precious stone, it gets its rich red color from the traces of manganese. Moreover, it scores 7.5-8 on Mohs’ scale of hardness, making it a suitable material for everyday wear. 

The largest known crystals of red beryl are around 5 cm long and 2 cm wide; however, most gem-quality crystals are less than 1 cm long. You can hardly find a red beryl crystal that’s heavier than one carat, and most of the red beryl crystals weigh around 0.25 carat or less.

Most of the known red beryl crystals have a rich saturated red color, allowing tiny-faceted stones to display a bright red color. Because of its rarity, red beryl can sell for over one thousand dollars per carat. Only a few red beryl specimens with a weight of more than a carat can cost several thousand dollars.

Here are a few things you should know about the rare and precious red beryl. 

Gem Quality Red Beryl Comes From a Single Source 

As mentioned earlier, red beryl is also known as a single source gemstone because gem-quality red beryl comes from what is known as the Ruby Violet mine in the Wah Wah Mountains, Utah. This member of the beryl family was first found in 1904 by Bixby. Following the early discovery, Lamar Hodges found another deposit of red beryl from what came to be known as the “Ruby Violet” mine in the Wah Wah Mountains of Utah.

It is still the only location in the world where you can find gem-quality red beryl. While the precious crystal can be found in other parts of the U.S. and Mexico, the crystals are too small and imperfect. As of now, the mine is closed for extraction, and there is no commercial production of gem-quality red beryl.

It Isn’t Easy to Find Good Quality, Large-Sized Red Beryl 

The largest known gem-quality red beryl weighs 8 carats. Moreover, 2-carat red beryl is considered as rare as a 40-carat diamond. Moreover, the largest red beryl crystal is 5 cm long and 2 cm wide when most of the gem-quality crystals are less than 1 cm long and weigh 0.25 carats or less. Furthermore, the average carat weight of the red beryl crystals is around 0.08 carat, whereas a 0.40-carat red beryl crystal is considered large, and 1 carat is exceptionally rare. 

In addition to being small, there is a significant amount of red beryl production that is not of gem quality. Of all the output of red beryl crystals from Wah Wah mountains, only 10% of it can be faceted. Moreover, less than 5% of the output was considered gem-quality material. 

All of this indicates that the red beryl is one of the rarest members of the beryl family, and it is exceptionally tough to find a large-sized, gem-quality red beryl. 

There is Always a Demand for Red Beryl 

Despite its rarity and difficulty in finding a large-sized crystal, there is always a demand for this precious stone. One of the primary reasons for the high demand is, of course, the rarity of the gemstone. There has always been a demand for red beryl from the American market, but there is an increasing demand for the precious stone from Japan and other Asian countries over the years. 

There is also a strong demand for the crystal from mineral collectors as its unique hexagonal shape, and the display of vivid red color is of exceptional interest to them. 

The Rarity and Demand Always Reflect in Price 

Since red beryl is a rare and precious stone that has an increasing demand in the U.S. and Asia as well, this factor heavily reflects its price. A red beryl crystal weighs more than a carat (which is exceptionally rare) and can cost several thousand dollars. However, its price also depends on several factors, including its color, size, and clarity. 

Final Words 

Red beryl is a rare and precious crystal which gem-quality crystals are coming from a single source. As of now, there is no commercial extraction of red beryl, which is why you can expect the price of red beryl to skyrocket in the next few years. 

Minerals

6 Rarest Crystals in the World

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AI generated model of a crystal in different colors
AI-generated model of a crystal in different colors. (Fotor)

Humans and crystals have been together for quite some time. The earliest records of crystals being collected by humans can be dated back to over 100,000 years ago. However, as technology improved, humans gained more information on naturally occurring crystals found beneath the Earth’s surface. 

As of now, there are over 200 known varieties of crystals and gemstones. Along with some of the most precious crystals, including ruby, diamond, and sapphire, there are numerous other crystals, and some of them are incredibly rare. 

This post looks at some of the world’s rarest crystals, in no particular order of rarity. 

Pink Star Diamond

AI-generated image of a pink diamond
AI-generated image of a pink diamond (Fotor)

This crystal is the rarest of the rarest when it comes to diamonds and it is one of the most valuable gemstones on the planet.

It is known for its extraordinary pink color and only a few of these have ever been discovered.

 

This diamond weighs 59.60 carats (11.92 gm). It was mined by De Beers in 1999 in South Africa and was sold for a record-breaking price of $71.2 million at an auction in 2017.

Tanzanite

TanzaniteTanzanite is one of the most beautiful blue crystals, a variety of a mineral named zoisite; however, the crystal doesn’t get its name from the mineral. Instead, it is named after the location of its discovery which is a small area near the foot of Mount Kilimanjaro in Tanzania. So far, it is the only known source of the crystal, which makes it rare and extremely valuable. 

Since its discovery in 1967, the crystal has gained popularity among jewelers and gemstone enthusiasts. However, according to estimates, the reserves of this precious crystal would last for only 20 to 30 years before the supply deletes, which will make the stone significantly more rare and valuable than diamonds unless a new source is discovered.

If you look at the properties of this crystal, it ranks between 6 and 7 on Mohs’ scale of hardness which makes it ideal for everyday wear. Moreover, its highly prized blue color may closely resemble blue sapphire, a favorite crystal for jewelry. However, heat treatment can significantly enhance its blue coloration, making it more unique and strikingly beautiful. Since there is only one known source of the crystal, Tanzanite is a highly valuable crystal with an average per-carat price of $1,200 for top-quality crystals.   

Poudretteite 

Another extremely rare crystal is Poudretteite which was discovered during the 1960s by the Poudrette family at their quarry near Mount St. Hilaire in Quebec, Canada. The crystal was named after the name of the family that first discovered it. However, the crystal was not officially recognized as a new mineral until 1986. Hence for a long time, there were no reported discoveries of Poudretteite. 

Several decades later, a gem-quality specimen of the crystal was first documented in Burma. Since then, only very few crystals have been found. The crystal is so rare that clean crystals over 1 carat are hardly ever found. Moreover, the largest known Poudretteite weighs 9.41 carats. Since it’s very rare to find a crystal of this weight, the largest known Poudretteite sits at the Smithsonian National Museum of Natural History.   

Benitoite 

Benitoite, the state gem of California, is another rare crystal that is only mined in a small area of California near the San Benito River. Hence, the gemstone got its name Benitoite. The crystal was first discovered in the early 1900s by the geologist George D. Louderback.

However, it was not until 1985 that the crystal became the official gemstone of California. The major source of the rare crystal near the San Benito River was closed for commercial mining in 2006. While trace quantities of the crystal were discovered in Japan, Australia, and Arkansas, California is the only known source that allows feasible mining of the crystal, making Benitoite another rare crystal in the world. 

Benitoite has a deep blue color that shows unique fluorescence when caught under UV light. If you want to purchase this rare crystal, make sure you find a trustworthy and legitimate source. Moreover, you need to go for stones with a medium body tone and a cut that enhances the stone’s fire. Crystals that are too dark in color will not reflect the light well. Similarly, a color that is too light will have a washout-out appearance. Furthermore, you shouldn’t expect to find stones that are heavier than 3 carats. 

You can find a high-quality medium blue Benitoite with an average price of $3,800 per carat. Stones that are less than 1 carat will have a relatively much lower price. 

Black Opal 

Coobe Pedy Opal Doublet Mineral
Coobe PedOpal Doublet Minera

Opals are usually creamish-white and can display rainbow-colored inclusions as light reflects on the stone. However, black opals are different and rare. Most of the black opals are mined in the Lightning Ridge area in New South Wales, Australia. Since it is extracted from a single source, black opals are the rarest of all opals found in Australia. 

Black opals have a naturally black body color. However, you can also find variations of the stone in green, blue, and brown colors. 

The most precious black opals are the ones with a darker color and brighter inclusions and the most precious black opal of all time is known as the “Aurora Australis,” which was found in 1938 in the Lightning Ridge area. The 180-carat black opal had an estimated worth of $650,000.  

Taaffeite 

Last on the list is another rare crystal, Taaffeite, which is also considered the rarest crystal globally. As of now, there are only 50 known specimens of this rare crystal, and most of them are held in private and geological collections. 

The crystal was discovered by chance by Austrian-Irish gemologist Edward Taaffe. Hence the crystal got its name. In 1940, the geologist bought a box of spinels, but he noticed that the mauve-colored spinel didn’t react to light in the same way as the rest of the spinels did; he sent it for further examination. The results revealed that the mauve-colored spinel was an unknown gemstone with no known source.

A few years later, Taaffeite was announced as a naturally occurring mineral. As a result, several other collectors re-examined their spinel collections and found a few more rare crystal specimens. Finally, the crystal source was tracked down, which revealed that most of the crystals came from Sri Lanka, whereas a handful was also found in China and Tanzania.

Conclusion

This brings an end to the list of the six rarest crystals in the world. There are several other rare crystals, such as Alexandrite, Padparadscha sapphire and many more that will hardly ever make an encounter with the general public, but they will continue to be rare and precious crystals that will be of immense value to people. 

Geology

Novarupta – The Most Potent Eruption of the 20th Century

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Image by Kanenori from Pixabay

It happened on June 6th, 1912!

The Novarupta-Katmai volcanic eruption in Alaska in 1912 became one of the most powerful eruptions of the 20th century. Even 109 years later, its status as one of the largest volcanic eruptions still remains.

In this post, we look at how it happened and the possibility that history might repeat itself again. 

The Eruption

On the morning of June 6th, 1912, Alaska residents were getting ready to start their upcoming fishing season. Back then, the population in the Alaska Peninsula was much lower than it is today. However, a few things never change, and earthquakes in the region are one of them. Even at that time, earthquakes were common in Alaska because of the region’s geological instability. 

As people were used to living in the region, over time, they realized that the earthquakes were not only getting more frequent but also stronger. Because of the frequency and intensity of these quakes, the two remaining families in the village left their homes for a safer place. 

And that’s when it happened. Around midday on June 6th, the skies over Katmai darkened and what happened next continued for the next 60 hours. The area didn’t see the sun during all these hours of a continuous volcanic eruption. 

Throughout the 60 hours of the constant eruption, the volcano spewed out around 6.7m3 of ash particles around 20 miles into the stratosphere (which extends around 30 miles above the earth’s surface). The ash-covered an area of around 3000 sq. miles, and the ash fell in amounts up to a foot that changed a nearby vast green valley into a wilderness known as the Valley of Ten Thousand Smokes. 

Impact of the Eruption

The region’s inhabitants were among the first people to experience the direct impact of the eruption. It was so loud that the blast was heard around 750 miles away. Moreover, the impact was not limited to sound. It had a major visual impact as residents witnessed a thick cloud of ashes that quickly rose towards the sky. 

Within the first few hours, this thick layer of ash began falling from the sky onto the nearby town of Kodiak. As the eruption continued for the next three days, the ashes covered the town up to one foot deep. As a result, the region’s inhabitants were forced to take shelter indoors as the outdoor environment was suffocating, making it difficult to breathe. The damage further continued as some of the buildings collapsed due to the heavyweight of the volcanic dust.

The impact was not limited to that region either. Within the next few days, the ash cloud traveled over western Canada and to several western U.S. states. By June 17th, the cloud was found in Algeria and then continued to spread to other regions, including China and India. While there were no deaths reported from the eruption, there was a lot of indirect impact in terms of loss to plants, animals, marine life, and agriculture, which continued for several years. 

The Formation of Valley of Ten Thousand Smokes

Novarupta Volacano
Valley of Knife Creek. Erin McKittrick, Ground Truth Trekking

Following the eruption, the National Geographic Society started sending expeditions to Alaska to investigate the damage.

During one such expedition in 1916, a few researchers traveled inland to the eruption area and found out that the valley of Knife Creek was completely barren.

Moreover, the ash was still hot, and thousands of jets of steam could be seen from the ground. Inspired by this observation, the valley was known as the “Valley of 10,000 Smokes”.

The Resulting Katmai Caldera and Novarupta Dome

During the initial observations, the Katmai Caldera volcano was originally thought to be a source of the eruption. However, it was a long time after the incident that researchers identified the original source as the Novarupta volcano. 

Can History Repeat Itself?

Novarupta is now silent and has been for quite some time. The last eruption reported from this volcano was the one in 1912 however, if you look at the history of Novarupta, it has erupted at least seven times in the last 4,000 years. Moreover, since the Alaska Peninsula is located on an active convergent boundary, we can expect future volcanic eruptions. Furthermore, given the location of Novarupta, it is likely that future volcanic eruptions will have a severe local and global impact, similar to what happened to Pompeii in 79 AD from the Mount Vesuvius volcano.

The local impact of potential volcanic activity anywhere can lead to a significant loss of life. Due to the potential impact of volcanic activity in this area of Alaska, the United States Geological Survey and others are closely monitoring these volcanoes. 

Furthermore, the impact of any future eruptions can have a devastating effect on the global climate. Studies indicate that a volcanic blast of this magnitude can modify the global surface temperature patterns and rainfall levels in several parts of the world.

Another possible reason to monitor these volcanoes is the danger of any future eruption on commercial air traffic. Jet engines experience enormous air pressure, and flying through the air containing fine ash particles can have a similar effect as sandblasting, which can cause extensive damage to the aircraft. Therefore, it is estimated that any future eruptions from Novarupta halt commercial air traffic across North America.

What Can We Do About It?

Unfortunately, eruptions like Novarupta are one of the natural disasters that we cannot prevent. However, the most we can do to control the situation is to assess the potential impact and develop a plan of action to minimize losses. With a history to look back to, there is a lot that we can learn from the eruption of 1912 and improve our chances of minimizing damage, injury, and death.

Minerals

What is Iron?

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What is Iron?

Iron ore in rock form
Iron ore on a rocky base

Did you know that iron is a healthy nutrient for our bodies as well as the main ingredient in the manufacture of steel?

Before we venture into the types of iron, let’s first examine its properties. Iron is a mineral with the symbol Fe and atomic number 26.

On the periodic table, it belongs to the first transition series, which reflects a change in the inner layer of electrons, but we’ll leave that for the chemists since the chemical compound of this mineral is beyond the scope of this article.

Iron is the most common element on Earth when referenced by mass and is very prominently found in the Earth’s outer and inner cores. It is the fourth most common element in the Earth’s crust, but the process to extract it requires kilns or furnaces capable of reaching a temperature of 2,730 °F or higher.

A Little Bit of Iron History

Bronz Statue
Bronze Statue
Wikipedia_Public Domain

Durint the Bronze Age (c. 3300–1200 BC) it was the metal of choice to create art, tools, and weapons. It was the first time metals were used for these purposes. Prior to this period, stone was used as a tool and for weapons; hence, the Stone Age.

Interestingly enough, the Bronze Age also brought us the first writing system and the invention of the wheel. An intriguing period of creative thought for sure.

Enter Iron

Say goodbye to bronze and hello to iron; hence, the Iron Age, which started around 1200 BC. It should be noted that before the Iron Age was coined, there were occasions when iron was found to be used much earlier.

One historical account was that of the ancient Egyptians. Archeologists found iron beads made from meteorites dating back to 3200 B.C.  Iron is abundant in outer space. But these incidences were rare until the time when iron became the metal of choice.

Iron for Infrastructure

Steel Columns and beams of 1 World Trade Center
Steel  (an alloy of iron) columns and beams of One World Trade Center Under Construction. Photo: SS

Once we entered the 19th century, new uses for iron materialized. It was discovered that this mineral, when mixed with carbon, can be used for building purposes, and with the advent of the industrial revolution, where items were being mass-produced, the manufacture of iron became an economical commodity. 

Building Construction

Iron in its pure form, it is not used for building construction since it would not have the tensile or compressive strength required for infrastructure, but when other elements are added to it, such as carbon, it can become a desirable metal.

Bridges and buildings are just two of the common uses of iron alloys, since their tensile and compression strengths are bolstered. Let’s take a look at the iron alloys.

Cast Iron

Cast iron buildings NYC
Cast iron buildings, Lower Manhattan. Photo: SS

Cast iron has 2% to 4% of carbon mixed in with it along with some small amounts of impurities, such as sulfur and phosphorus.

This alloy has an advantage as it is simple to cast (mold).

A good example of the use of cast iron can be found in the SoHo and nearby areas of New York City. There are about 250 cast iron buildings located there. The initial purpose of cast iron facades was to improve older buildings, but they were eventually used in newer construction as well. 

Cast Iron’s Disadvantage

Because of iron’s brittleness (subject to fractures under stress) and relatively low tensile (ability to stretch) strength, cast iron is not a suitable material for products that require a high degree of tension or bending moments.

Cast Iron’s Advantage

Although tension is not a good quality of cast iron, it does have acceptable compressive strength (ability to sustain heavy loads) and it is also durable (ability to withstand wear).

Construction of bridges and buildings using cast iron was very popular in the late 19th and early 20th centuries. In fact, there is a whole section in New York City that is called the Cast Iron District, also known as SOHO.

Later in the mid-20th century and on to today’s building construction techniques, cast iron gave way to steel because of the fact that steel has high tension capabilities as well as high compression.

Wrought Iron 

Cast iron fence. Palermo Italy
Wrought iron fence. Palermo Italy. Photo SS.

Wrought iron is not an iron alloy. It is made entirely of iron with no  carbon additions. Wrought iron is malleable, ductile, and corrosion-resistant. 

This metal is different from cast iron and because of its malleability. it was given the name wrought since it could be hammered into shape while it remained hot. Wrought iron is a prerequisite to mild steel, also called low-carbon steel, and is considered the first of the steel alloys.

As a matter of fact, the element was initially refined into steel. In the 1860s, ironclad warships and railways were built with these iron alloys.

Wrought iron was eventually halted to make way for the less expensive and stronger steel, as steel’s advantage over wrought iron and cast iron is its ability to absorb shocks without breaking.

Steel

Steel Cantilever at Chase Bank Headquarters
Steel Cantilever at Chase Bank Headquarters Under Construction. Photo: SS

Steel is an iron alloy that contains a low amount of carbon, roughly 0.40%; however, that is enough to change iron’s characteristics, and with the advent of the Bessemer process, making steel became less costly to create. 

Steel has good tension and compression factors, as well as being impact resistant. Steel is so strong that it is used to cantilever skyscrapers. This is why you see so many buildings under construction today that have steel as their framework.

Iron for Nutrition

Red Blood Cells
“Red blood cells” by rpongsaj is licensed under CC BY 2.0

Since iron is a mineral, it is also an important nutrient for our bodies. If you have an iron deficiency, you may possibly acquire anemia and also fatigue.

So how much iron do you need on a daily basis? For most people, an adequate amount of iron is consumed daily via the foods that we eat, but to determine your specific iron needs, you can see a chart and information here. One person told us that he eats yogurt and raisins every day. Raisins contain a certain amount of iron. 

Do you know why our blood is red?  It is because there is an interaction between iron and oxygen within the blood creating a red color. Learn more about red blood cells and iron here.

To be sure you have enough iron in your body, check with your doctor to confirm you are not deficient.

Conclusion

Besides being an essential component for healthy blood in our bodies, iron became an essential component for weapons and later, building materials.

There are differences between cast iron and wrought iron besides their carbon content. Cast iron is created using the casting method, where a liquid metal is poured into a mold, while wrought iron is made by use of heating and bending.

Numerous bridges and buildings have been constructed during the 18th, 19th, and 20th centuries using iron, but as the industrial revolution advanced and the making of materials became automated, new alloys of iron were created, specifically, steel and along with concrete, led to the construction of stronger buildings, bridges, and skyscrapers we see today all over the world. 

Geology

6 Longest Non-Polar Glaciers Around the World

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Glaciers, large masses of dense ice, are formed in high-altitude regions where the accumulation of snow is far greater and faster than the melting process. Over time, the layers of snow crystallize and form ice. The process of formation of glaciers takes centuries and even millennia. Surprisingly, glaciers are not just a unique feature of the polar caps but they are also found in many non-polar regions of the world. High mountain ranges in the former USSR, Pakistan, and the Americas are also home to some of the world’s largest non-polar glaciers. Below is a list of the seven longest non-polar glaciers in the world.   

Fedchenko Glacier, Tajikistan 

The world’s longest glacier outside the polar world is the Fedchenko glacier situated in the Central Asian country of Tajikistan. The glacier is around 45 miles long and covers an area of 350 square miles. The Fedchenko Glacier flows north from the ice field of Revolution Peak and receives ice from dozens of other smaller glaciers. The thickness of ice in the middle of the Fedchenko glacier is approximately 3,280 feet. The giant mass of ice can cover a distance of up 26 inches every day and forms the headstream of River Surkhab and the Amu Darya. 

It was discovered in 1871 by a Russian expedition and is named after the Russian explorer A.P. Fedchenko. Parts of this iceberg were explored later in 1928. Over time, the glacier has experienced a significant loss of ice. Climate change and global warming have dramatically reduced their size since the second half of the last century. 

Siachen Glacier, Indo-Pak Border 

The Siachen is the second-longest non-polar glacier in the world lying in the Karakoram Range near the border of India and Pakistan. It is 47 miles long and covers an area of 270 square miles. The region is home to many smaller glaciers and a number of fast-flowing surface streams.  

Climate change has significantly affected almost every part of the world and the Siachen glacier is no exception. Between the years 1989 and 2009, this area of ice was reduced by 2.2 square miles. Human presence in the region has further accelerated the melting, as this mountain of ice has been a source of conflict between military conflict for decades. The highest battlefield on Earth provides freshwater which enters the River Indus of Pakistan and the Ganges in India.

Biafo Glacier, Pakistan 

The Biafo Glacier is another long non-polar glacier located in the Karakoram range in Pakistan. The 40-mile-long mountain in Gilgit-Baltistan meets Hispar Glacier, another 30-mile-long glacier, and forms the largest glacial system outside the polar region. This ice formation acts as a bridge between the two ancient kingdoms of the mountains; The Nagar and Baltistan. The Biafo glacier provides a trek with spectacular sights and traces of wildlife all along.  

The glacial system is largely affected by the changing global climate. The rising temperature has destabilized the movement of these ice formations and has altered the level of rain and snowfall in the region; consequently, these changes have resulted in flooding and intense heat waves not only in Pakistan but in other neighboring countries as well. 

Bruggen Glacier, Chile 

The Bruggen Glacier, also known as the Pio XI Glacier, is located in southern Chile. With a length of 40 miles, it is the fourth-largest glacier in the non-polar region and the longest glacier in the Southern hemisphere.  The glacier continued to advance towards the sea and covered a distance of more than three miles between 1945 and 1976. 

Despite being one of the largest glaciers in the nonpolar region of the world, the Bruggen glacier is one of the least studied glacial areas in the world. However, considering its pattern of movement, it can be concluded that the glacier experienced periods of enhanced movement followed by retreat periods. This effect is in addition to climate change which is negatively affecting the glaciers around the world. 

Baltoro Glacier, Pakistan 

The Baltoro glacier is located in the mountain range of the Karakoram in the Baltistan region of northern Pakistan. It covers an area of 23 square miles and the length of the centerline is more than 35 miles. The second highest mountain in the world, K2 is located around 7 miles north of the tongue of the main glacier. 

Despite its location in a remote and politically unstable region of Pakistan, this glacier is extensively studied by geologists. This glacier is of unique importance to geologists because of its extensive debris cover. 38% of the area of the glacier is covered with debris. When it comes to these types of ice formations, debris accumulation follows a certain pattern of increasing thickness. Ongoing land sliding and mudflow have led to an increase in the thickness of debris in the Baltoro glacier. As of now, the debris thickness in Baltoro glaciers has reached almost 10 feet, which is a major concern for geologists. 

South Inylchek Glacier, Kyrgyzstan, and China 

Another tourist-friendly destination, the South Inylchek Glacier is located on the borders of Kyrgyzstan and China. With a length of over 60 miles and more than 300 square miles, the Inyichek glacier is the sixth-longest nonpolar glacier. It is divided into two sections and covers more than 100 peaks of varying heights with snow and ice. 

It is a place of incredible natural beauty where climbers around the world can enjoy the trek along with breathtaking aerial views. 

 

Howard Fensterman Minerals